| Citation |
|
Description |
Geographic Range [top]
Range Description: Ciconia episcopus is found patchily across South Asia and South East Asia. Its range extends from Pakistan (where it is now very rare) through India, lowland Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and south-east through Myanmar, Thailand, Lao, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Peninsular Malaysia, the Philippines, and Sumatra and Java, Indonesia (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Grimmett et al. 1998, Robson 2008). Non-breeders have also been observed in Iran (Porter and Aspinal 2010). Steep declines have been noted in South-East Asia, including in Laos, Thailand and Cambodia (J. W. Duckworth in litt. 2013, R. J. Timmins in litt. 2013, F. Goes in litt. 2014). In the Philippines, the species appears to have become extirpated or near-extirpated from Luzon (A. Jensen in litt. 2013). The population in South Asia appears to be stable overall (Praveen J. in litt. 2014, S. Subramanya in litt. 2014), with some evidence of local declines (H. Baral and C. Inskipp in litt. 2014).
Countries occurrence:
Native:
Bangladesh; Bhutan; Cambodia; India; Indonesia; Lao Peoples Democratic Republic; Malaysia; Myanmar; Nepal; Pakistan; Philippines; Sri Lanka; Thailand; Viet Nam
Vagrant:
Iran, Islamic Republic of
Continuing decline in area of occupancy (AOO): Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in area of occupancy (AOO): No
Estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) - km2: 3860000
Continuing decline in extent of occurrence (EOO): Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in extent of occurrence (EOO): No
Continuing decline in number of locations: Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in the number of locations: No
Upper elevation limit (metres): 1400
Range Map: Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.
Population [top]
Population: The population has been estimated to number up to 35,000 individuals (Wetlands International 2014), although further research is required.
Trend Justification: The overall population is suspected to be in rapid decline, although this is largely a result of substantial declines in South-East Asia (J. W. Duckworth in litt. 2013, R. J. Timmins in litt. 2013, F. Goes in litt. 2014), with populations in South Asia appearing to be stable (Praveen J. in litt. 2014, S. Subramanya in litt. 2014), and other populations with unknown trends (Wetlands International 2014).
Current Population Trend: Decreasing
Additional data:
?Continuing decline of mature individuals: Yes
?Extreme fluctuations: No ?Population severely fragmented: No
?Continuing decline in subpopulations: Unknown
?Extreme fluctuations in subpopulations: No ?All individuals in one subpopulation: No
Habitat and Ecology [top]
Habitat and Ecology: Behaviour In India the species tends to breed during the rains (Hancock et al. 1992) (between July and September in the south and December to March in the north). The species breeds in solitary pairs (del Hoyo et al. 1992). When not breeding the species is normally seen solitarily or in pairs, but will gather in flocks up to at least 80 at permanent natural or man-made wetlands in dry landscapes (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Pande et al. 2007). Habitat The species shows a preference for natural wetland habitats (Sundar 2006) in savanna and grassland, including rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, water-holes, lagoons, dams, flood plains, marshes, and freshwater and peat swamp forests (del Hoyo et al. 1992), although it will also use artificial habitats such as rice paddy-fields, flooded pastures, and cultivated fields (del Hoyo et al. 1992). It generally avoids forests, but is regular in light woodland or forest clearings in Indochina (del Hoyo et al. 1992). It also frequents coastal mudflats or coral reefs (del Hoyo et al. 1992), and can be found up to 1,400 m in Sulawesi and 1,250 m in Nepal (del Hoyo et al. 1992, Grimmett et al. 1998). Diet The species is predominantly carnivorous, its diet consisting of fish, frogs, toads, snakes, lizards, large insects and larvae (del Hoyo et al. 1992), crabs, molluscs and marine invertebrates (del Hoyo et al. 1992). Breeding site The nest is a large stick platform built 10-30 m (and sometimes up to 50 m) above the ground or over water, on a fork of a horizontal branch in a tall tree (Hancock et al. 1992, del Hoyo et al. 1992).
Systems: Terrestrial; Freshwater; Marine
Continuing decline in area, extent and/or quality of habitat: Unknown
Generation Length (years): 15.9
Movement patterns: Not a Migrant
Congregatory: Congregatory (and dispersive)
Threats [top]
Major Threat(s): The main threat to this species in South-East Asia is severe habitat loss and fragmentation (Luthin 1987, del Hoyo et al. 1992), particularly that of lowland forests with tall trees used for nesting (R. J. Timmins in litt. 2013). The species has also suffered population reductions as a result of shooting (Hancock et al. 1992). Nests of this species are collected in South-East Asia, where it is a widely dispersed and non-colonial breeder, meaning that it does not have protected concentrations of breeding pairs, but also that its nests are less readily targeted (R. J. Timmins in litt. 2013, F. Goes in litt. 2014). In Nepal, the species is threatened by habitat loss and degradation, hunting, disturbance and possibly the use of agro-chemicals (H. Baral and C. Inskipp in litt. 2014).
Conservation Actions [top]
Conservation Actions: Conservation Actions Underway
Surveys of wetland birds have captured data on this species, and it occurs in numerous protected areas.
Conservation Actions Proposed
Carry out coordinated surveys to assess the total population size and trend. Conduct awareness-raising activities to reduce persecution. Protect additional areas of suitable habitat, especially nesting areas in South-East Asia.
Citation: BirdLife International. 2014. Ciconia episcopus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T22727255A40811601. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-2.RLTS.T22727255A40811601.en. Downloaded on 31 March 2016.
Disclaimer: To make use of this information, please check the .
Feedback: If you see any errors or have any questions or suggestions on what is shown on this page, please provide us with feedback so that we can correct or extend the information provided
|
