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Description |
Comprehensive Description
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Acanthophora spicifera is a Rhodophycean alga with wide distribution throughout the tropics and subtropics (Kilar and McLachlan, 1986). It occurs on a wide variety of substrata, from hard bottom, as an epiphyte on other algae, or as a free living drift alga. It is often a large component of drift algae biomass. A. spicifera has a large, irregularly shaped holdfast for attachment to hard bottoms. From the holdfast, erect fronds begin to branch out. The main branches have short, determinate branchlets that are irregularly shaped and spinose. Branchlets are hook-like, brittle and fragment easily under heavy wave action. Color is highly variable, and can be shades of red, purple, or brown (Littler and Littler, 1989). A. spicifera grows upright to approximately 25 cm.
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© Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce Source: Indian River Lagoon Species Inventory
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Distribution
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Acanthophora spicifera is one of the most abundant red algal species found on reef flats (Joikel and Morrissey, 1986). It has a wide distribution in both tropical and subtropical habitats, occurring primarily in the tidal and subtidal zones. It is found extensively on shallow reef flats throughout Florida, the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico to depths of 22 meters, although it typically inhabits more shallow waters from 1 - 8 meters in depth (Kilar and McLachlan, 1986; Littler and Littler 1989). In the Indian River Lagoon, A. spicifera is commonly found attached to rocks and oyster rubble. Dead or dying specimens can be found smothering Thalassia testudinum beds.
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PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION
Size
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Typical size for this species, under conditions of minimal disturbance, is approximately to 250 mm. However, wave action is known to alter branching morphology depending on whether the alga inhabits a fore-reef or a back-reef habitat. In one study performed in Panama, A. spicifera populations in the heavily wave-influenced fore-reef area had an average height of 38 mm, while those in the back-reef grew to an average of 110 mm (Kilar and McLachlan 1986).
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ECOLOGY
Habitat
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Depth range based on 42 specimens in 1 taxon.
Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 3 samples.
Environmental ranges
Depth range (m): 0 - 19
Temperature range (°C): 26.692 - 27.099
Nitrate (umol/L): 0.086 - 0.923
Salinity (PPS): 34.929 - 35.037
Oxygen (ml/l): 4.657 - 4.685
Phosphate (umol/l): 0.085 - 0.122
Silicate (umol/l): 0.983 - 1.887
Graphical representation
Depth range (m): 0 - 19
Temperature range (°C): 26.692 - 27.099
Nitrate (umol/L): 0.086 - 0.923
Salinity (PPS): 34.929 - 35.037
Oxygen (ml/l): 4.657 - 4.685
Phosphate (umol/l): 0.085 - 0.122
Silicate (umol/l): 0.983 - 1.887
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.
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Source: Ocean Biogeographic Information System
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learn more about this article
Depth range based on 42 specimens in 1 taxon.
Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 3 samples.
Environmental ranges
Depth range (m): 0 - 19
Temperature range (°C): 26.692 - 27.099
Nitrate (umol/L): 0.086 - 0.923
Salinity (PPS): 34.929 - 35.037
Oxygen (ml/l): 4.657 - 4.685
Phosphate (umol/l): 0.085 - 0.122
Silicate (umol/l): 0.983 - 1.887
Graphical representation
Depth range (m): 0 - 19
Temperature range (°C): 26.692 - 27.099
Nitrate (umol/L): 0.086 - 0.923
Salinity (PPS): 34.929 - 35.037
Oxygen (ml/l): 4.657 - 4.685
Phosphate (umol/l): 0.085 - 0.122
Silicate (umol/l): 0.983 - 1.887
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.
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Source: Ocean Biogeographic Information System
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Trophic Strategy
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A. spicifera is autotrophic.Competitors: Acanthophora spicifera survival on reefs is enhanced when it co-occurs with dense aggregates of other algal species that are more tolerant of wave exposure and are able to retain water when exposed to air. A. spicifera benefits from this association by being shielded from sunlight, and somewhat insulated from dessication. One such beneficial species is Laurencia papillosa. In some Caribbean habitats, A. spicifera is able to outcompete, but not exclude, Laurencia papillosa. The relative success of both species is heavily dependent on the duration and types of disturbance to the habitat area, as well as each species ability to maintain space during competition, reproduction, and vegetative growth.Predation upon A. spicifera:Along with reef fishes, the green turtle, Chelonia mydas, also ingests A. spicifera. An examination of the gut contents of dead turtles showed that they grazed tufts of A. spicifera. In a study conducted by Russell and Balazs (1994), A. spicifera appeared in 20% of the stomach content samples taken from green turtles.Habitat: Grows attached to rocks and oyster rubble in shallow (1 m) areas of the Indian River Lagoon. Elsewhere, it commonly inhabits reef flats where it attaches to hard bottoms, grows as an epiphyte on other algae, or is free living as drift algae.Activity Time: An association refuge sometimes occurs when A. spicifera grows in association with the soft coral Sinularia sp. Kerr and Paul (1995) have shown that predation upon A. spicifera by fish decreases with its proximity to Sinularia.
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Population Biology
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A. spicifera is one of the most common and abundant red algal species to occur on reef-flats. It is found at depths from 1-22 meters.Locomotion: Sessile. Fragments are carried and dispersed by local currents.
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LIFE HISTORY AND BEHAVIOR
Reproduction
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Sexual: A. spicifera has a triphasic alteration of generations in which the tetrasporophytic and gametophytic generations are isomorphic, while the gametophyte is dioecious (Borgensen 1918; Taylor 1967; Kilar and McLachlan 1986).Tetrasporophytes were the most common reproductive phase occurring on reef flats in Panama (Kilar and McLachlan 1986), with over 80% of the plants tetrasporic throughout much of the year. This percentage was reduced to only 5% during periods of prolonged tidal immersion.Asexual: Fragmentation accounts for much of the distribution and standing crop of this species. On reef flats, as much as 26% of the standing crop can be lost to drift each month. Kilar and McLachlan (1986) showed that exported biomass of A. spicifera on a 1.0 - 1.3 ha sampling area of a plant-dominated fringing reef at Galeta Point, Caribbean Panama, was 3 - 74 kg per month. This equated to an estimated average of approximately 269 kg per year.Turbulence in the fore-reef zone causes A. spicifera to fragment. Currents often transport fragments across seagrass meadows to the back-reef zone, where they snag on rocks, algae, or some other substratum. Experiments conducted in Panama suggested that depending on the prevailing current direction and velocity, fragments broken off in the fore-reef had a 49 - 93% chance of recruiting to the back-reef zone. Higher currents tended to decrease the chances of snagging (Kilar and McLachlan 1986). Approximately 2 days was required for A. spicifera fragments to attach to hard substrata, conspecifics, or to other species of plants.A. spicifera is well adapted for recruiting into new areas after fragmentation because its branchlets are hook-like and easily snag onto other algae, or any substrate with an irregular surface. However, in experimental plots (Kilar and McLachlan 1986), A. spicifera was unable to recruit to plots of Thalassia testudinum, possibly because the hook-like branchlets of the algae were not able to snag onto the smooth, flexible leaves of Thalassia species.
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MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND GENETICS
Molecular Biology
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Acanthophora Spicifera
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Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 0
Specimens with Barcodes: 1
Species With Barcodes: 1
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Statistics of barcoding coverage: Acanthophora spicifera
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Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 0
Specimens with Barcodes: 24
Species With Barcodes: 1
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© Barcode of Life Data Systems Source: Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD)
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RELEVANCE TO HUMANS AND ECOSYSTEMS
Benefits
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Providing food, habitat and refuge for many fish and invertebrates, Acanthophora spicifera and other drift algae play an integral part in many pelagic and benthic by increasing habitat complexity.Notes on Endemism: Though a native to Florida and the Caribbean, Acanthophora spicifera is an invader to Hawaiian waters, probably as the result of its colonizing boat hulls and being transported throughout the Hawaiian Islands during the late 1940s and early 1950s (Russell 1992). Though this species, as well as another invader, Hypnea musciformis, have both been shown to compete with native species in Hawaii, they have added to the overall productivity of the areas they inhabit (Russell and Balazs 1994). Further, they have become a significant part of the diet for some fish species, and the green turtle, Chelonia mydas (Russell and Balazs 1994).
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WIKIPEDIA
Acanthophora spicifera
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Acanthophora spicifera is a species of marine red algae in the family Rhodomelaceae.
Contents
1 Distribution
2 Ecology
3 Attempt to control
4 References
Distribution
Distribution of Acanthophora spicifera include:
Guam[1]
Houtman Abrolhos[2]
Hawaii - non-indigenous.[1] It was unintentionally introduced to Pearl Harbor, Hawai‘i from Guam in 1950 and has since become the most common nonindigenous algal species in the main Hawaiian Islands.[1] On the west coast of Hawai‘i Island it has been documented at three sites, including Kaloko Fishpond in Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park, Puukohola Heiau National Historic Site and Puuhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park.[1]
Ecology
Acanthophora spicifera is one of the most common nonindigenous algal species in Hawaii and it displaces many native species where it is abundant.[1]
The success of Acanthophora spicifera in invading benthic habitats is attributed to: (1) its ability to reproduce both sexually and vegetatively (by fragmentation); (2) successful epiphytism; and (3) its adaptability to a wide range of hydrological conditions.[1] Rapid recolonization is probably due to the ability of Acanthophora spicifera to regrow from even small amounts of residual tissue and the high rate of reproduction.[1]
Algal abundance is influenced by both nutrient availability and herbivory.[1] The combination of high nutrient concentration and low herbivory, as in Kaloko Fishpond, promotes greater increases in algal abundance than an increase in nutrients alone.[1] Herbivory, therefore, appears to play an important role in preventing tropical macroalgal growth.[1]
Acanthophora spicifera is a palatable and highly preferred food for herbivorous fishes in Hawai‘i and has been found in the mouths of green sea turtles.[1]
Attempt to control
Acanthophora spicifera is a very difficult alga to eradicate, but controlling its spread and density may be feasible.[1] A range of approaches was assessed to control this invasive alga in Kaloko Fishpond in Hawaii. Removal techniques were labor intensive and had limited effect. All experiments showed a substantial initial decrease in algal density, but the long-term effect was minimal because of rapid regrowth. The most promising removal method was the use of submerged shelters to raise local densities of herbivorous fishes. Fishes grazed the alga and quickly reduced the biomass. However, the large number of predators and absence of topographical structure will make it challenging to provide sufficient shelters to increase the herbivorous fish population (biocontrol) in the entire fishpond.[1]
References
This article incorporates public domain text from the reference.[1]
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n PD-icon.svg Weijerman M., Most R., Wong K. & Beavers S. (2008). "Attempt to Control the Invasive Red Alga Acanthophora spicifera (Rhodophyta: Ceramiales) in a Hawaiian Fishpond: An Assessment of Removal Techniques and Management Options". Pacific Science 62(4): 517-532.doi:10.2984/1534-6188(2008)62[517:ATCTIR]2.0.CO;2. PDF.
^ Huisman, John M. (1997). "Marine benthic algae of the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia". In Wells, F. E.. The marine flora and fauna of the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia: Volume 1. Western Australian Museum. pp. 177–237. ISBN 0-7309-8553-9.
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