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Brief Summary
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Phrynoidis aspera, the giant Asian toad, inhabits primary and old secondary rainforests of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar and Borneo up to 1500 m above sea level and in Vietnam at about 700 m in elevation. Although not yet reported from Cambodia and Laos, it is likely also to occur in these countries. Phrynoidis aspera lives along banks of small to medium-sized streams and large rivers. It goes by various other common names including River Toad, Rough Toad, Kodok Buduk Sungal, Kodok Puru Besar.
The giant Asian toad has a large and stout body. Female snout-vent length measures 95-140 mm, and males 70-100 mm. Their rough skin is usually dark brown, gray or black in color and covered with warts or tubercles. The white belly has black spotting. These toads have a broad and blunt head, without bony crests, and have a visible tympanum. Males have blackish coloring on their throats and nuptial pads on the base of the first finger.
Phrynoidis aspera is nocturnal and partially aquatic, coming out at night and hiding under submerged stones during the day. It lives along stream banks rarely straying more than 2 meters (6 feet) from the waters edge. Males call to females from widely spaced sites along the stream banks at night, particularly when there is a full moon. The call is a raspy chirp, sometimes repeated. They do not form choruses.
Adults do not move much on a given day. However, research has found adult toads move distances of up to 465 meters over a period of 180 days. Inger (2003) hypothesizes that slow net movement allowed Phrynoidis aspera to disperse between the continent and Borneo over relatively short periods of sea regression during the Pleistocene.
The giant Asian toad reproduces year-round. Females lay huge clutches, with an average size of 12,792 eggs per clutch, in quiet portions of streams. Ripe ova have a diameter of 1.26 mm. The dark-colored tadpoles reach 12-15 mm before metamorphosis. They are somewhat flattened, with a leaf-shaped tail. Tadpoles typically adhere to the bottom of streams with slow to medium currents using their subterminal, cuplike mouths. Their enlarged lips enable bottom feeding.
Phrynoidis aspera is somewhat resilient to habitat loss and pollution, surviving where other frogs have disappeared in Sumatra and Java. It is listed as “of least concern” by the IUCN. However it occurs in varying abundances in different parts of its range and shows low genetic diversity in fragmented Malaysian forest, especially compared with other Phrynoidis species.
Giant Asian toads have large parotoid glands located behind their eyes. These secrete a toxic, white milk to deter predators when the toads get agitated. Skin toxins from Phrynoidis aspera induce locomotor difficulties, prostration, and convulsions in mice, with partial recovery after 5 hours. The major toxic component in Phrynoidis aspera skin extracts is bufotalin (a bufadienolide), with a lesser component of resibufogenin and minor amounts of other bufadienolides and bufotoxins.
This frog is eaten by people in Sabah and peninsular Malaysia.
(Marcelino and Whittaker 2014; IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group 2014; Inger 2003;)
Frost, D.R. 2013. Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 5.6 (9 January 2013). Electronic Database. American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA. Available at: http://research.amnh.org/herpetology/amphibia/index.html.
IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group. 2014. Phrynoidis asper. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T54579A62062983. Downloaded on 06 May 2016 from http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/54579/0
Inger, R. F. and Bacon, J. P., 1968. Annual reproduction and clutch size in rain forest frogs from Sarawak. Copeia 1968(3):602-606.
Inger, R.F., 2003. Sampling biodiversity in Bornean frogs. The Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University, 3(1), 9-15.
Marcelino, J. and K. Whittaker, 29 October 2014. Bufo asper. Amphibia Web: Information on amphibian biology and conservation. [web application]. 2016. Berkeley, California. Retrieved May 6, 2016 from http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi/amphib_query?where-genus=Phrynoidis&where-species=aspera&account=amphibiaweb.
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Comprehensive Description
Description
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Bufo asper has a large and stout body. The females have a snout-vent length of 95-140 mm, while the males have a snout-vent length of 70-100 mm. The skin is covered with warts or tubercles; the name of this species derives from its rough skin texture. The head is broad and blunt, without bony crests. This toad has an ovoid parotoid gland connected to the supraorbital ridge by a supratympanic ridge. The tympanum is visible. The hands and feet are spinous. The fourth toe is the longest, and all the toes except the fourth are fully webbed. Males have nuptial pads on the base of the first finger. Bufo asper is usually dark brown, gray or black in color, with black spotting ventrally. Males have a blackish coloring on their throats (Iskandar 1998; Inger and Stuebing 2005; Inger and Bacon 1968).
Bufo asper tadpoles are small, reaching 12-15 mm before metamorphosis. The body is oval and somewhat flattened. The tail is leaf-shaped, rounded with a narrow tip. The lower lip is quite wide (Inger and Stuebing 2005), with the cuplike mouth enabling the tadpole to adhere to the bottom substrate in flowing water (Iskandar 1998). The denticle formula is II/III. Tadpole coloration is either all black or dark brown (Iskandar 1998).
Skin toxins from Bufo asper were able to induce the following significanteffects on mice at a dose of 100 mg/mouse: locomotor difficulties, prostration,and convulsions, with partial recovery after 5 hours. The major toxic componentin Bufo asper skin extracts is bufotalin (a bufadienolide), with a lessercomponent of resibufogenin and minor amounts of other bufadienolides andbufotoxins (Daly et al. 2004).
The diploid chromosome number is 22, with five pairs of large chromosomes andsix pairs of smaller chromosomes (Iskandar 1998).
Daly, J. W., Noimai, N., Kongkathip, B., Kongkathip, N., Wilham, J. M., Garraffo, H. M., Kaneko, T., Spande, T. F., Ninit, Y., Nabhitabhata, J., and Chan-Ard, T. (2004). Biologically active substances from amphibians: preliminary studies on anurans from twenty-one genera of Thailand. Toxicon, 44, 805-815.
Emerson, S. B., and Hess, D. L. (1996). The role of androgens in opportunistic breeding tropical frogs. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 103, 220-230.
IUCN, Conservation International, and NatureServe. (2006). Global Amphibian Assessment: Bufo asper. www.globalamphibians.org. Accessed on 23 November 2007.
Inger, R. F. (1969). Organization of communities of frogs along small rain forest streams in Sarawak. Journal of Animal Ecology, 38, 123-148.
Inger, R. F. (2003). Sampling biodiversity in Bornean frogs. The Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University, 3(1), 9-15.
Inger, R. F. and Bacon, J. P. (1968). Annual reproduction and clutch size in rain forest frogs from Sarawak. Copeia, 1968, 602-606.
Inger, R. F. and Stuebing, R. B. (2005). A Field Guide to the Frogs of Borneo, 2nd edition. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
Inger, R. F., Voris, H. K., and Voris, H. H. (1974). Genetic variation and population ecology of some Southeast Asian frogs of the genus Bufo and Rana. Biochemical Genetics, 12(2), 121-145.
Iskandar, D. T. (1998). The Amphibians of Java and Bali. Research and Development Centre for Biology-LIPI, Bogor, Indonesia.
Nguyen, V. S., Ho, C. T., and Nguyen, T. Q. (2005). A Checklist of the Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, Vietnam.
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Description
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Bufo asper has a large and stout body. The females have a snout-vent length of 95-140 mm, while the males have a snout-vent length of 70-100 mm. The skin is covered with warts or tubercles; the name of this species derives from its rough skin texture. The head is broad and blunt, without bony crests. This toad has an ovoid parotoid gland connected to the supraorbital ridge by a supratympanic ridge. The tympanum is visible. The hands and feet are spinous. The fourth toe is the longest, and all the toes except the fourth are fully webbed. Males have nuptial pads on the base of the first finger. Bufo asper is usually dark brown, gray or black in color, with black spotting ventrally. Males have a blackish coloring on their throats (Iskandar 1998; Inger and Stuebing 2005; Inger and Bacon 1968).
Bufo asper tadpoles are small, reaching 12-15 mm before metamorphosis. The body is oval and somewhat flattened. The tail is leaf-shaped, rounded with a narrow tip. The lower lip is quite wide (Inger and Stuebing 2005), with the cuplike mouth enabling the tadpole to adhere to the bottom substrate in flowing water (Iskandar 1998). The denticle formula is II/III. Tadpole coloration is either all black or dark brown (Iskandar 1998).
Skin toxins from Bufo asper were able to induce the following significanteffects on mice at a dose of 100 mg/mouse: locomotor difficulties, prostration,and convulsions, with partial recovery after 5 hours. The major toxic componentin Bufo asper skin extracts is bufotalin (a bufadienolide), with a lessercomponent of resibufogenin and minor amounts of other bufadienolides andbufotoxins (Daly et al. 2004).
The diploid chromosome number is 22, with five pairs of large chromosomes andsix pairs of smaller chromosomes (Iskandar 1998).
Daly, J. W., Noimai, N., Kongkathip, B., Kongkathip, N., Wilham, J. M., Garraffo, H. M., Kaneko, T., Spande, T. F., Ninit, Y., Nabhitabhata, J., and Chan-Ard, T. (2004). Biologically active substances from amphibians: preliminary studies on anurans from twenty-one genera of Thailand. Toxicon, 44, 805-815.
Emerson, S. B., and Hess, D. L. (1996). The role of androgens in opportunistic breeding tropical frogs. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 103, 220-230.
IUCN, Conservation International, and NatureServe. (2006). Global Amphibian Assessment: Bufo asper. www.globalamphibians.org. Accessed on 23 November 2007.
Inger, R. F. (1969). Organization of communities of frogs along small rain forest streams in Sarawak. Journal of Animal Ecology, 38, 123-148.
Inger, R. F. (2003). Sampling biodiversity in Bornean frogs. The Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University, 3(1), 9-15.
Inger, R. F. and Bacon, J. P. (1968). Annual reproduction and clutch size in rain forest frogs from Sarawak. Copeia, 1968, 602-606.
Inger, R. F. and Stuebing, R. B. (2005). A Field Guide to the Frogs of Borneo, 2nd edition. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
Inger, R. F., Voris, H. K., and Voris, H. H. (1974). Genetic variation and population ecology of some Southeast Asian frogs of the genus Bufo and Rana. Biochemical Genetics, 12(2), 121-145.
Iskandar, D. T. (1998). The Amphibians of Java and Bali. Research and Development Centre for Biology-LIPI, Bogor, Indonesia.
Nguyen, V. S., Ho, C. T., and Nguyen, T. Q. (2005). A Checklist of the Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, Vietnam.
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Distribution
Distribution and Habitat
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This species can be found in primary and old secondary rainforests of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar and Borneo, up to 1500 m above sea level (Iskandar, 1998; Inger et al., 1974). It has also been reported to occur in Vietnam, at the border of Gia Lai and Dac Lac provinces to the northwest of Plei Tung Than; in Vietnam it occurs at about 700 m in elevation (Nguyen et al. 2005). It is likely also to occur in intervening Cambodia and Laos, but has not yet been reported from these countries. Bufo asper lives along banks of small to medium-sized streams (3-30 m wide) and large rivers (Inger at al. 1974).
Daly, J. W., Noimai, N., Kongkathip, B., Kongkathip, N., Wilham, J. M., Garraffo, H. M., Kaneko, T., Spande, T. F., Ninit, Y., Nabhitabhata, J., and Chan-Ard, T. (2004). Biologically active substances from amphibians: preliminary studies on anurans from twenty-one genera of Thailand. Toxicon, 44, 805-815.
Emerson, S. B., and Hess, D. L. (1996). The role of androgens in opportunistic breeding tropical frogs. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 103, 220-230.
IUCN, Conservation International, and NatureServe. (2006). Global Amphibian Assessment: Bufo asper. www.globalamphibians.org. Accessed on 23 November 2007.
Inger, R. F. (1969). Organization of communities of frogs along small rain forest streams in Sarawak. Journal of Animal Ecology, 38, 123-148.
Inger, R. F. (2003). Sampling biodiversity in Bornean frogs. The Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University, 3(1), 9-15.
Inger, R. F. and Bacon, J. P. (1968). Annual reproduction and clutch size in rain forest frogs from Sarawak. Copeia, 1968, 602-606.
Inger, R. F. and Stuebing, R. B. (2005). A Field Guide to the Frogs of Borneo, 2nd edition. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
Inger, R. F., Voris, H. K., and Voris, H. H. (1974). Genetic variation and population ecology of some Southeast Asian frogs of the genus Bufo and Rana. Biochemical Genetics, 12(2), 121-145.
Iskandar, D. T. (1998). The Amphibians of Java and Bali. Research and Development Centre for Biology-LIPI, Bogor, Indonesia.
Nguyen, V. S., Ho, C. T., and Nguyen, T. Q. (2005). A Checklist of the Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, Vietnam.
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Distribution and Habitat
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This species can be found in primary and old secondary rainforests of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar and Borneo, up to 1500 m above sea level (Iskandar, 1998; Inger et al., 1974). It has also been reported to occur in Vietnam, at the border of Gia Lai and Dac Lac provinces to the northwest of Plei Tung Than; in Vietnam it occurs at about 700 m in elevation (Nguyen et al. 2005). It is likely also to occur in intervening Cambodia and Laos, but has not yet been reported from these countries. Bufo asper lives along banks of small to medium-sized streams (3-30 m wide) and large rivers (Inger at al. 1974).
Daly, J. W., Noimai, N., Kongkathip, B., Kongkathip, N., Wilham, J. M., Garraffo, H. M., Kaneko, T., Spande, T. F., Ninit, Y., Nabhitabhata, J., and Chan-Ard, T. (2004). Biologically active substances from amphibians: preliminary studies on anurans from twenty-one genera of Thailand. Toxicon, 44, 805-815.
Emerson, S. B., and Hess, D. L. (1996). The role of androgens in opportunistic breeding tropical frogs. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 103, 220-230.
IUCN, Conservation International, and NatureServe. (2006). Global Amphibian Assessment: Bufo asper. www.globalamphibians.org. Accessed on 23 November 2007.
Inger, R. F. (1969). Organization of communities of frogs along small rain forest streams in Sarawak. Journal of Animal Ecology, 38, 123-148.
Inger, R. F. (2003). Sampling biodiversity in Bornean frogs. The Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University, 3(1), 9-15.
Inger, R. F. and Bacon, J. P. (1968). Annual reproduction and clutch size in rain forest frogs from Sarawak. Copeia, 1968, 602-606.
Inger, R. F. and Stuebing, R. B. (2005). A Field Guide to the Frogs of Borneo, 2nd edition. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
Inger, R. F., Voris, H. K., and Voris, H. H. (1974). Genetic variation and population ecology of some Southeast Asian frogs of the genus Bufo and Rana. Biochemical Genetics, 12(2), 121-145.
Iskandar, D. T. (1998). The Amphibians of Java and Bali. Research and Development Centre for Biology-LIPI, Bogor, Indonesia.
Nguyen, V. S., Ho, C. T., and Nguyen, T. Q. (2005). A Checklist of the Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, Vietnam.
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MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND GENETICS
Molecular Biology
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Bufo asper
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Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 0
Specimens with Barcodes: 1
Species With Barcodes: 1
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CONSERVATION
Trends
Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviors
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Bufo asper is nocturnal and partially aquatic, coming out at night and hiding under submerged stones during the day (Iskandar, 1998). It lives along stream banks rather than wandering through the forest, almost always remaining within 2 m of the waters edge (Inger et al. 1974). On Bornean streams, the median home ranges vary from 43-75 m (Inger et al. 1974). Males call to females from widely spaced sites along the stream banks at night, particularly when there is a full moon (Inger 1969; Iskandar 1998). The call has been described as a raspy chirp, which is sometimes repeated (Inger and Stuebing 2005). They do not form choruses (Emerson and Hess 1996). This species appears to reproduce year-round, as both sperm and eggs are produced throughout the year (Inger and Bacon 1968). Ripe ova have a diameter of 1.26 mm (Inger and Bacon 1968). This species lays huge clutches, with an average size of 12,792 eggs per clutch (Inger and Bacon 1968). Bufo asper prefers to lay its eggs in quiet portions of streams, as metamorphosing larvae were found at the edges of side pools of streams in Borneo (Inger et al. 1974). The tadpoles are somewhat flattened, and typically adhere to the bottom of streams with slow to medium currents using their subterminal, cuplike mouths. The lips are enlarged, enabling bottom feeding (Iskandar 1998).
Bufo asper adults do not move much on a given day (Inger and Stuebing 2005). However, these toads have been found to show net movement (distance between the point of first and last capture over a given time period) of up to 465 m over a period of 180 days (Inger 2003). It has been hypothesized that this vagility may have allowed Bufo asper to disperse between the continent and Borneo over relatively short periods of sea regression during the Pleistocene (Inger 2003).
Daly, J. W., Noimai, N., Kongkathip, B., Kongkathip, N., Wilham, J. M., Garraffo, H. M., Kaneko, T., Spande, T. F., Ninit, Y., Nabhitabhata, J., and Chan-Ard, T. (2004). Biologically active substances from amphibians: preliminary studies on anurans from twenty-one genera of Thailand. Toxicon, 44, 805-815.
Emerson, S. B., and Hess, D. L. (1996). The role of androgens in opportunistic breeding tropical frogs. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 103, 220-230.
IUCN, Conservation International, and NatureServe. (2006). Global Amphibian Assessment: Bufo asper. www.globalamphibians.org. Accessed on 23 November 2007.
Inger, R. F. (1969). Organization of communities of frogs along small rain forest streams in Sarawak. Journal of Animal Ecology, 38, 123-148.
Inger, R. F. (2003). Sampling biodiversity in Bornean frogs. The Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University, 3(1), 9-15.
Inger, R. F. and Bacon, J. P. (1968). Annual reproduction and clutch size in rain forest frogs from Sarawak. Copeia, 1968, 602-606.
Inger, R. F. and Stuebing, R. B. (2005). A Field Guide to the Frogs of Borneo, 2nd edition. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
Inger, R. F., Voris, H. K., and Voris, H. H. (1974). Genetic variation and population ecology of some Southeast Asian frogs of the genus Bufo and Rana. Biochemical Genetics, 12(2), 121-145.
Iskandar, D. T. (1998). The Amphibians of Java and Bali. Research and Development Centre for Biology-LIPI, Bogor, Indonesia.
Nguyen, V. S., Ho, C. T., and Nguyen, T. Q. (2005). A Checklist of the Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, Vietnam.
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Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviors
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Bufo asper is nocturnal and partially aquatic, coming out at night and hiding under submerged stones during the day (Iskandar, 1998). It lives along stream banks rather than wandering through the forest, almost always remaining within 2 m of the waters edge (Inger et al. 1974). On Bornean streams, the median home ranges vary from 43-75 m (Inger et al. 1974). Males call to females from widely spaced sites along the stream banks at night, particularly when there is a full moon (Inger 1969; Iskandar 1998). The call has been described as a raspy chirp, which is sometimes repeated (Inger and Stuebing 2005). They do not form choruses (Emerson and Hess 1996). This species appears to reproduce year-round, as both sperm and eggs are produced throughout the year (Inger and Bacon 1968). Ripe ova have a diameter of 1.26 mm (Inger and Bacon 1968). This species lays huge clutches, with an average size of 12,792 eggs per clutch (Inger and Bacon 1968). Bufo asper prefers to lay its eggs in quiet portions of streams, as metamorphosing larvae were found at the edges of side pools of streams in Borneo (Inger et al. 1974). The tadpoles are somewhat flattened, and typically adhere to the bottom of streams with slow to medium currents using their subterminal, cuplike mouths. The lips are enlarged, enabling bottom feeding (Iskandar 1998).
Bufo asper adults do not move much on a given day (Inger and Stuebing 2005). However, these toads have been found to show net movement (distance between the point of first and last capture over a given time period) of up to 465 m over a period of 180 days (Inger 2003). It has been hypothesized that this vagility may have allowed Bufo asper to disperse between the continent and Borneo over relatively short periods of sea regression during the Pleistocene (Inger 2003).
Daly, J. W., Noimai, N., Kongkathip, B., Kongkathip, N., Wilham, J. M., Garraffo, H. M., Kaneko, T., Spande, T. F., Ninit, Y., Nabhitabhata, J., and Chan-Ard, T. (2004). Biologically active substances from amphibians: preliminary studies on anurans from twenty-one genera of Thailand. Toxicon, 44, 805-815.
Emerson, S. B., and Hess, D. L. (1996). The role of androgens in opportunistic breeding tropical frogs. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 103, 220-230.
IUCN, Conservation International, and NatureServe. (2006). Global Amphibian Assessment: Bufo asper. www.globalamphibians.org. Accessed on 23 November 2007.
Inger, R. F. (1969). Organization of communities of frogs along small rain forest streams in Sarawak. Journal of Animal Ecology, 38, 123-148.
Inger, R. F. (2003). Sampling biodiversity in Bornean frogs. The Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University, 3(1), 9-15.
Inger, R. F. and Bacon, J. P. (1968). Annual reproduction and clutch size in rain forest frogs from Sarawak. Copeia, 1968, 602-606.
Inger, R. F. and Stuebing, R. B. (2005). A Field Guide to the Frogs of Borneo, 2nd edition. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
Inger, R. F., Voris, H. K., and Voris, H. H. (1974). Genetic variation and population ecology of some Southeast Asian frogs of the genus Bufo and Rana. Biochemical Genetics, 12(2), 121-145.
Iskandar, D. T. (1998). The Amphibians of Java and Bali. Research and Development Centre for Biology-LIPI, Bogor, Indonesia.
Nguyen, V. S., Ho, C. T., and Nguyen, T. Q. (2005). A Checklist of the Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, Vietnam.
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Threats
Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviors
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This species is quite resilient. Although B. asper is affected by habitat loss and pollution, it has managed to survive in areas where many other frog species have disappeared, particularly on Sumatra and Java (Iskandar 1998; IUCN 2006). However, populations in Malaysian forest fragments were shown to have a relative lack of genetic diversity (vs. B. parvus and B. melanostictus), which reflects the coincidence of Bufo asper breeding and feeding areas, linear home ranges, and lack of breeding aggregations (Inger et al. 1974).
Daly, J. W., Noimai, N., Kongkathip, B., Kongkathip, N., Wilham, J. M., Garraffo, H. M., Kaneko, T., Spande, T. F., Ninit, Y., Nabhitabhata, J., and Chan-Ard, T. (2004). Biologically active substances from amphibians: preliminary studies on anurans from twenty-one genera of Thailand. Toxicon, 44, 805-815.
Emerson, S. B., and Hess, D. L. (1996). The role of androgens in opportunistic breeding tropical frogs. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 103, 220-230.
IUCN, Conservation International, and NatureServe. (2006). Global Amphibian Assessment: Bufo asper. www.globalamphibians.org. Accessed on 23 November 2007.
Inger, R. F. (1969). Organization of communities of frogs along small rain forest streams in Sarawak. Journal of Animal Ecology, 38, 123-148.
Inger, R. F. (2003). Sampling biodiversity in Bornean frogs. The Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University, 3(1), 9-15.
Inger, R. F. and Bacon, J. P. (1968). Annual reproduction and clutch size in rain forest frogs from Sarawak. Copeia, 1968, 602-606.
Inger, R. F. and Stuebing, R. B. (2005). A Field Guide to the Frogs of Borneo, 2nd edition. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
Inger, R. F., Voris, H. K., and Voris, H. H. (1974). Genetic variation and population ecology of some Southeast Asian frogs of the genus Bufo and Rana. Biochemical Genetics, 12(2), 121-145.
Iskandar, D. T. (1998). The Amphibians of Java and Bali. Research and Development Centre for Biology-LIPI, Bogor, Indonesia.
Nguyen, V. S., Ho, C. T., and Nguyen, T. Q. (2005). A Checklist of the Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, Vietnam.
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Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviors
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This species is quite resilient. Although B. asper is affected by habitat loss and pollution, it has managed to survive in areas where many other frog species have disappeared, particularly on Sumatra and Java (Iskandar 1998; IUCN 2006). However, populations in Malaysian forest fragments were shown to have a relative lack of genetic diversity (vs. B. parvus and B. melanostictus), which reflects the coincidence of Bufo asper breeding and feeding areas, linear home ranges, and lack of breeding aggregations (Inger et al. 1974).
Daly, J. W., Noimai, N., Kongkathip, B., Kongkathip, N., Wilham, J. M., Garraffo, H. M., Kaneko, T., Spande, T. F., Ninit, Y., Nabhitabhata, J., and Chan-Ard, T. (2004). Biologically active substances from amphibians: preliminary studies on anurans from twenty-one genera of Thailand. Toxicon, 44, 805-815.
Emerson, S. B., and Hess, D. L. (1996). The role of androgens in opportunistic breeding tropical frogs. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 103, 220-230.
IUCN, Conservation International, and NatureServe. (2006). Global Amphibian Assessment: Bufo asper. www.globalamphibians.org. Accessed on 23 November 2007.
Inger, R. F. (1969). Organization of communities of frogs along small rain forest streams in Sarawak. Journal of Animal Ecology, 38, 123-148.
Inger, R. F. (2003). Sampling biodiversity in Bornean frogs. The Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University, 3(1), 9-15.
Inger, R. F. and Bacon, J. P. (1968). Annual reproduction and clutch size in rain forest frogs from Sarawak. Copeia, 1968, 602-606.
Inger, R. F. and Stuebing, R. B. (2005). A Field Guide to the Frogs of Borneo, 2nd edition. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
Inger, R. F., Voris, H. K., and Voris, H. H. (1974). Genetic variation and population ecology of some Southeast Asian frogs of the genus Bufo and Rana. Biochemical Genetics, 12(2), 121-145.
Iskandar, D. T. (1998). The Amphibians of Java and Bali. Research and Development Centre for Biology-LIPI, Bogor, Indonesia.
Nguyen, V. S., Ho, C. T., and Nguyen, T. Q. (2005). A Checklist of the Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, Vietnam.
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RELEVANCE TO HUMANS AND ECOSYSTEMS
Risks
Relation to Humans
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This frog is consumed for food in Sabah and peninsular Malaysia (IUCN 2006).
Daly, J. W., Noimai, N., Kongkathip, B., Kongkathip, N., Wilham, J. M., Garraffo, H. M., Kaneko, T., Spande, T. F., Ninit, Y., Nabhitabhata, J., and Chan-Ard, T. (2004). Biologically active substances from amphibians: preliminary studies on anurans from twenty-one genera of Thailand. Toxicon, 44, 805-815.
Emerson, S. B., and Hess, D. L. (1996). The role of androgens in opportunistic breeding tropical frogs. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 103, 220-230.
IUCN, Conservation International, and NatureServe. (2006). Global Amphibian Assessment: Bufo asper. www.globalamphibians.org. Accessed on 23 November 2007.
Inger, R. F. (1969). Organization of communities of frogs along small rain forest streams in Sarawak. Journal of Animal Ecology, 38, 123-148.
Inger, R. F. (2003). Sampling biodiversity in Bornean frogs. The Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University, 3(1), 9-15.
Inger, R. F. and Bacon, J. P. (1968). Annual reproduction and clutch size in rain forest frogs from Sarawak. Copeia, 1968, 602-606.
Inger, R. F. and Stuebing, R. B. (2005). A Field Guide to the Frogs of Borneo, 2nd edition. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
Inger, R. F., Voris, H. K., and Voris, H. H. (1974). Genetic variation and population ecology of some Southeast Asian frogs of the genus Bufo and Rana. Biochemical Genetics, 12(2), 121-145.
Iskandar, D. T. (1998). The Amphibians of Java and Bali. Research and Development Centre for Biology-LIPI, Bogor, Indonesia.
Nguyen, V. S., Ho, C. T., and Nguyen, T. Q. (2005). A Checklist of the Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, Vietnam.
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 (CC BY 3.0)
© AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2015 The Regents of the University of California Source: AmphibiaWeb
TRUSTED
article rating from 0 people Default rating: 2.5 of 5
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Relation to Humans
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This frog is consumed for food in Sabah and peninsular Malaysia (IUCN 2006).
Daly, J. W., Noimai, N., Kongkathip, B., Kongkathip, N., Wilham, J. M., Garraffo, H. M., Kaneko, T., Spande, T. F., Ninit, Y., Nabhitabhata, J., and Chan-Ard, T. (2004). Biologically active substances from amphibians: preliminary studies on anurans from twenty-one genera of Thailand. Toxicon, 44, 805-815.
Emerson, S. B., and Hess, D. L. (1996). The role of androgens in opportunistic breeding tropical frogs. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 103, 220-230.
IUCN, Conservation International, and NatureServe. (2006). Global Amphibian Assessment: Bufo asper. www.globalamphibians.org. Accessed on 23 November 2007.
Inger, R. F. (1969). Organization of communities of frogs along small rain forest streams in Sarawak. Journal of Animal Ecology, 38, 123-148.
Inger, R. F. (2003). Sampling biodiversity in Bornean frogs. The Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University, 3(1), 9-15.
Inger, R. F. and Bacon, J. P. (1968). Annual reproduction and clutch size in rain forest frogs from Sarawak. Copeia, 1968, 602-606.
Inger, R. F. and Stuebing, R. B. (2005). A Field Guide to the Frogs of Borneo, 2nd edition. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
Inger, R. F., Voris, H. K., and Voris, H. H. (1974). Genetic variation and population ecology of some Southeast Asian frogs of the genus Bufo and Rana. Biochemical Genetics, 12(2), 121-145.
Iskandar, D. T. (1998). The Amphibians of Java and Bali. Research and Development Centre for Biology-LIPI, Bogor, Indonesia.
Nguyen, V. S., Ho, C. T., and Nguyen, T. Q. (2005). A Checklist of the Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, Vietnam.
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 (CC BY 3.0)
© AmphibiaWeb © 2000-2011 The Regents of the University of California Source: AmphibiaWeb
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WIKIPEDIA
Bufo asper
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The Asian giant toad (Bufo asper), sometimes referred to as the river toad, is a large toad native to southeast Asia.
§Description[edit]
Bufo asper is generally a dark grey, green, black or brown in color, and is heavily covered in tubercles. These toads can grow to lengths greater than 8.5 inches (22 cm).
§References[edit]
^ Robert Inger, Djoko Iskandar, Peter Paul van Dijk (2004). "Phrynoidis aspera". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
"Bufo asper". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 19 March 2006.
Frogs of the Malay Peninsula: Bufo asper
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