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Acacia auriculiformis
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PEA FAMILY
Fabaceae; Subfamily: Mimosaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: earleaf acacia, Japanese acacia, northern black wattle, tan wattle
Cambodia: acacia sleuk toch, smach tehs
Indonesia: akasia kuning, pohon akasia
Malaysia: akasia kuning, bunga siam, kasia
Philippines: auri
Thailand: kratin-narong
Viet Nam: keo lá tram, tràm bông vàng
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen tree with no thorns/spines [8–20 (–35) m tall], trunk 60 cm in diameter, often multi-stemmed with compact spread.
Bark: Grey or brown, sometimes black at the base, smooth in young trees, becoming rough and longitudinally fissured with age.
Leaves: Greyish-green, ‘leaves’ are flattened leaf stalks called phyllodes, slightly curved (8–20 cm long and 1.0–4.5 cm wide), hairless and thinly textured; 3–7 longitudinal veins running together towards the lower margin or in the middle near the base, with many fine, crowded secondary veins, and a distinct gland at the base of the phyllodes.
Flowers: Light golden-orange, minute, in spikes (8.5 cm long), fragrant.
Fruits: Pods (several-seeded dry fruits that split open at maturity), green turning brown as they mature, initially straight or curved becoming twisted and coiled (6.5 cm long and 1.5 cm wide) containing shiny black seeds (0.4–0.6 cm long and 0.3–0.4 cm wide) encircled by a long red, yellow or orange structure.
ORIGIN
Australia and Papua New Guinea.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Fuelwood, building materials, timber, pulp, erosion control, land reclamation, shade and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed areas, wastelands, urban open space, forest edges/gaps and riparian vegetation.
IMPACTS
Displaces native vegetation and shades out indigenous plant species. In Florida, USA, it threatens rare plant species such as the listed scrub pinweed, Lechea cernua Sm. (Cistaceae), in remnant scrub areas (K. C. Burks, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, pers. obs., in FLEPPC, 2015). In Singapore, it is very persistent in disturbed and secondary forests (Tan, 2011). It is also considered to be allelopathic, inhibiting the germination and growth of agricultural crops tested (Hoque et al., 2003).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/
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Acacia decurrens
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PEA FAMILY
Fabaceae; Subfamily: Mimosaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: acacia bark, early black wattle, green wattle, Sydney wattle, tan wattle
Indonesia: wartel
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen tree with no thorns/spines [5–10 (–15) m tall]; no visible hairs; branches prominently angled with wings or ridges that emanate from the leaf bases.
Bark: Olive-green turning grey, smooth to deeply fissured.
Leaves: Bright green, twice-divided, feathery; leaflets slender (6–15 mm long), a single raised gland occurs at the junction of each pair of leaf branchlets.
Flowers: Bright yellow, rounded clusters arranged into larger, showy, elongated compound clusters.
Fruits: Pods (several-seeded dry fruits that split open at maturity), green turning dark brown as they mature, elongated, hairless, slightly flattened (2–10 cm long), containing about 11 black seeds.
ORIGIN
Southeast Australia
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Fuelwood, building materials, timber, tannins, pulp, soil conservation, windbreaks, shelter, shade and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, wasteland, urban open space, grasslands, savannah, forest edges/gaps and riparian vegetation.
IMPACTS
The accumulation of dead/rotting foliage forms a thick ground cover which, over time, eliminates the growth and establishment of other vegetation (Ruskin, 1983). When it forms dense thickets along waterways it reduces water flow and can contribute to flooding (Hill et al., 2000) and streambank erosion. It has a significant impact on water runoff, and because it fixes nitrogen, it alters soil nutrient cycling. Its pollen is reported to be allergenic.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/
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Acacia longifolia
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PEA Family
SYSTEM:
COMMON NAME:
DESCRIPTION:
NATIVE RANGE:
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS
Source: Marchante, Elizabete. 2010. Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Acacia longifolia. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Acacia+longifolia on |
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Acacia mangium
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PEA FAMILY
Fabaceae; Subfamily: Mimosaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: brown salwood, hickory wattle, mangium
Cambodia: acacia sleuk thom
Indonesia: mangge hutan, nak, sabah salwood, tongke hutan
Philippines: maber
Thailand: krathinthepha
Viet Nam: keo tai tuong
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen tree with no thorns/spines (30–35 m tall) and often with a straight trunk [25–50 (–90) cm in diameter].
Bark: Greenish and smooth in young trees; rough, greyish brown to dark brown, hard, fissured near the base of older trees.
Leaves: Dark green, ‘leaves’ are expanded leaf stalks called phyllodes, straight on one side and slightly curved on the other (25 cm long and 3.5–10 cm wide), 4–5 main longitudinal veins, gland conspicuous at the base of the phyllodes.
Flowers: Numerous tiny white or cream flowers in loose spikes (5–12 cm long).
Fruits: Pods (several-seeded dry fruits that split open at maturity), green turning brown as they mature (8–10 cm long and 0.3–0.5 cm wide), initially straight and broad but irregularly coiled when ripe; seeds are black and shiny (3–5 mm long and 2–3 mm wide), attached to the pods by an orange-to-red folded appendage.
ORIGIN
Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Fuelwood, building materials, timber, fibre, tannins, shade, shelter and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed areas, wastelands, urban open space, plantations, croplands, forest edges/gaps, woodland edges/gaps and coastal areas.
IMPACTS
In forests in Brunei A. mangium has displaced many native plants and, in particular, heath forest species (Osunkoya et al., 2005). The tree has also invaded fruit and coffee farms and has a negative impact on the germination and growth of two local rice varieties (Ismail and Metali, 2014). It also uses significant amounts of water, more that the natural vegetation that it replaces. By fixing nitrogen it also impacts on soil nutrient cycling.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 9 October 2018
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Acanthogobius flavimanus
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SYSTEM
Freshwater
COMMON NAMES
English: spotted goby; Japanese river goby, Oriental goby, yellowfin goby
Viet Nam: Cá Bong hoa; Cá Bong
DESCRIPTION
Acanthogobius flavimanus is easily identified due to its large size. Adult yellowfin goby have a large head and elongate body and can grow to 30cm in length. This fish is pale brown with a series of dark saddles and spots. Juveniles have pale yellow ventral and anal fins. All ages possess yellow ventral fins whereas other gobies have clear, white, grey or black ventral fins (Barnham, 1998).
NATIVE RANGE
ASEAN: Malaysia; Viet Nam
WORLD: China; Japan; Korea, Democratic People's Republic Of; Russian Federation
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
WORLD: Australia; United States
PATHWAY
Transport - Ship/boat hull fouling
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
It also is hypothesized that introduced gobies arrived as eggs on fouling organisms, such as oysters, growing on ship hulls (Nico and Fuller, 2004).
IMPACTS
The introduction of Acanthogobius flavimanus alters fish communities and hastens the decline of native species. In California, introductions of A. flavimanus have been associated with extirpations of an endangered species of fish - the tidewater goby (Eucyclogobius newberryi) from certain bodies of water. It also competes with native species for food sources (Meng et al. 1994: Lafferty et al. 1999, Nico and Fuller, 2004).
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2020) Species profile: Acanthogobius flavimanus. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Acanthogobius+flavimanus on 07-04-2020.
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Achatina fulica
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SYSTEM
Terrestrial
COMMON NAMES
English: giant African snail, giant African land snail
DESCRIPTION
Achatina fulica has a narrow, conical shell, which is twice as long as it is wide and contains 7 to 9 whorls when fully grown. The shell is generally reddish-brown in colour with weak yellowish vertical markings but colouration varies with environmental conditions and diet. A light coffee colour is common. Adults of the species may exceed 20cm in shell length but generally average about 5 to 10cm. The average weight of the snail is approximately 32 grams (Cooling 2005).
NATIVE RANGE
WORLD: Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, United Republic Of
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam
WORLD: American Samoa, Anguilla, Bangladesh, Barbados, Bermuda, Brazil, China, Colombia, Cook Islands, Cote D'ivoire, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, French Guiana, French Polynesia, Ghana, Guadeloupe, Guam, Guyana, Hong Kong, India, Japan, Kenya, Kiribati, Madagascar, Marshall Islands, Martinique, Mauritius, Mayotte, Micronesia, Federated States Of, Morocco, Mozambique, Nepal, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Reunion, Saint Lucia, Saint Martin (French Part), Samoa, Sao Tome And Principe, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Taiwan, Trinidad And Tobago, Tuvalu, United States, United States Minor Outlying Islands, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Wallis And Futuna
PATHWAY
Transport – Container/bulk; Contaminant nursery material; Food contaminant; Hitchhikers in or on plane; Machinery/equipment; People and their luggage; Vehicles
Release - Landscape/flora/fauna improvement
Escape - Ornamental purpose; Pet/aquarium/terrarium species
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
There is a huge risk of the giant African snail (Achatina fulica) being spread and introduced into new locations via trade routes. It is frequently moved with agricultural products, equipment, cargo and plant or soil matter. The snail’s ability to store sperm is a distinct advantage and could enable a founding population to form from just one individual. Targeting risk industries such as nurseries, farmers markets, vehicle depots is important to prevent long distance spread of the snail. Achatina fulica may be accidentally associated with commerce. Achatina fulica has been introduced to new locations for ornamental purposes (Thiengo et al. 2007). Achatina fulica may be spread to new locations as a novelty fauna addition.Snails may be inadvertently transported with personal belongings. Achatina fulica has been introduced to new locations as a novelty pet (Thiengo et al. 2007). Achatina fulica may attach itself to vehicles and be spread in this way. Small snails and eggs may be inadvertently transported with agricultural, horticultural, and other commercial products and the containers they are shipped in (Thiengo et al. 2007).Accidental transport with military equipment may be important (Mead 1961, in Thiengo et al. 2007). Much of the later spread of A. fulica was related to Japanese activities in the years leading up to and during World War II (Thiengo et al)..
IMPACTS
Achatina fulica is considered one of the worst snail pests of tropic and subtropic regions. While their small size limits the quantity of plant material consumed per animal the aggregated nature of the infestations can lead to severe damage in infested plants (Raut & Barker 2002). The process of naturalisation may ameliorate the impacts of this invasive species.
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2020) Species profile: Achatina fulica. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Achatina+fulica on 02-04-2020.
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Acridotheres tristis
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SYSTEM
Terrestrial
COMMON NAMES
English: house myna, common myna, Calcutta myna, mynah, Indian mynah, Indian myna
DESCRIPTION
Indian mynas are 23 to 26 cm long, weigh 82 to 143 g and have a wing-span of 120 to 142 mm (Markula Hannan-Jones & Csurhes 2009). The common myna has a medium to heavy build and a cocoa brown colour (Massam 2001). The head, neck and upper breast of the adult is glossy black, while the undertail coverts, tail tip and the outer feathers are white (Massam 2001). The white feathers can be seen most clearly when the bird is in flight. The bill, legs and feet are bright yellow, while the adult iris is reddish brown to brownish yellow in colour (Massam 2001). Male and female A. tristis are not clearly sexually dimorphic and are thus difficult to identify in the field (Counsilman Nee Jalil and Keng 1994).
NATIVE RANGE
ASEAN: Cambodia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam
WORLD: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Egypt, India, Iran, Islamic Republic Of, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN: Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Singapore
WORLD: American Samoa, Australia, Comoros, Cook Islands, Fiji, France, French Polynesia, Hong Kong, India, Iraq, Israel, Kiribati, Kuwait, Madagascar, Maldives, Mauritius, Mayotte, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Oman, Qatar, Reunion, Russian Federation, Saint Helena, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, South Africa, Spain, Tonga, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United States, United States Minor Outlying Islands, Vanuatu, Wallis And Futuna
PATHWAY
Escape - Botanical garden/zoo/aquaria; Pet/aquarium/terrarium species
Transport - Hitchhikers on ship/boat
Release - Landscape/flora/fauna improvement
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
In Israel, mynas escaped from a private facility of exotic birds in the centre of the Tel Aviv public park. On oceanic islands, invasion pathways appear to be primarily via ships, particularly large ferries (Tearika 2003, D. Wattling Pers. Comm.).The pathway to the Spanish islands has been through pet shops and later escapes from the home cages. Introduced by acclimatisation societies.
IMPACTS
The common myna (Acridotheres tristis), also called the Indian myna, is a highly commensal Passerine that lives in close association with humans. It competes with small mammals and bird for nesting hollows and on some islands, such as Hawaii and Fiji, it preys on other birds' eggs and chicks. It presents a threat to indigenous biota, particularly parrots and other birdlife, in Australia and elsewhere.
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2020) Species profile: Acridotheres tristis. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Acridotheres+tristis on 01-04-2020.
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Aedes albopictus
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SYSTEM
Terrestrial
COMMON NAMES
English: forest day mosquito; Asian tiger mosquito; tiger mosquito
DESCRIPTION
Adults are known as tiger mosquitoes due to their conspicuous patterns of very black bodies with white stripes. Also, there is a distinctive single white band (stripe) down the length of the back. The body length is about 3/16-inch long. Like all mosquitoes, Asian tiger mosquitoes are small, fragile insects with slender bodies, one pair of narrow wings, and three pairs of long, slender legs. They have an elongate proboscis with which the female bites and feeds on blood.
NATIVE RANGE
WORLD: Japan
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN: Thailand
WORLD: Albania; Argentina; Australia; Barbados; Belgium; Bermuda; Bolivia; Bosnia And Herzegovina; Brazil; Cameroon; Cayman Islands; Chile; China; Colombia; Costa Rica; Croatia; Cuba; Dominican Republic; El Salvador; Equatorial Guinea; Fiji; France; Gabon; Greece; Guatemala; Honduras; Israel; Italy; Lebanon; Madagascar; Mexico; Montenegro; Netherlands; New Zealand; Nicaragua; Nigeria; Panama; Paraguay; Reunion; Serbia; Slovenia; Solomon Islands; South Africa; Spain; Switzerland; ]Syrian Arab Republic; Taiwan; Trinidad And Tobago; United States; Venezuela
PATHWAY
Transport - Container/bulk; Contaminant on plants; Transportation of habitat material; Vehicles
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
During the summer of 2001, containerised shipments from China of the plant known as Lucky Bamboo (Dracaena spp.) were found to contain A. albopictus on inspection by quarantine officers on arrival at Los Angeles, USA (Linthicum 2001, in Eritja et al. 2005). This route of spread became an issue only after traders swapped from dry freight to low cost shipping routes (which required the plants to be shipped in standing water to preserve them for the longer voyage).Movement of moist vegetation, wet tyres or water containers that can hold eggs or larvae. Movement of moist vegetation, wet tires or water containers that hold eggs or larvae. The adult flight range is quite short. Therefore, most medium and long range colonization is the result of passive transportation by humans. This may occur, for example, in the movement of used tires in trucks (Eritja et al. 2005).
IMPACTS
The tiger mosquito is an aggressive outdoor day biter that has a very broad host range and attacks humans, livestock, amphibians, reptiles and birds (Eritja et al. 2005). The tiger mosquito is associated with the transmission of many human diseases, including the viruses: Dengue, West Nile and Japanese Encephalitis.
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2020) Species profile: Aedes albopictus. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Aedes+albopictus on 07-04-2020.
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Ageratina adenophora
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DAISY FAMILY
Asteraceae
COMMON NAMES
English: cat weed, crofton weed, hemp agrimony, Mexican devil.
DESCRIPTION
A multi-stemmed evergreen herb or soft shrub [1–2 (–3) m high], young stems green, reddish or purplish covered in sticky hairs becoming woody and brownish-green or brown when mature.
Leaves: Dark green, simple, diamond-shaped or almost triangular (4–15 cm long and 3–9 cm wide) with toothed margins, three-veined from the base, held opposite each other on the stem on long stalks (about 1–6 cm long), non-aromatic.
Flowers: White flowerheads (5–8 mm across) in terminal clusters at the tips of branches.
Fruits: Achenes (small, dry, one-seeded fruits that don’t open at maturity), bristly (about 2 mm long and 0.3–0.5 mm wide).
ORIGIN
Mexico
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Roadsides, railway lines, disturbed areas, wastelands, urban open space, plantations, forests, forest edges/gaps, riparian vegetation and lowlands.
IMPACTS
Trailing branches easily root at the nodes on contact with the soil, forming dense impenetrable stands resulting in the loss of biodiversity. In Australia, infestations pose a threat to rare and endangered species. It also reduces crop yields, reduces livestockcarrying capacities and restricts movement of livestock and machinery. In Australia, it spreads so fast that dairy farmers and banana growers abandoned their land (Auld, 1969, 1970; Holm et al.,1991; Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992). It is unpalatable to cattle and toxic to horses, who readily consume it if present.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 10 October 2018
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Ageratum conyzoides and A. houstonianum
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DAISY FAMILY
Asteraceae
COMMON NAMES
English: goatweed, invading ageratum, Mexican ageratum
Indonesia: badotan, wedusan
Lao PDR: nya khiu
Myanmar: kayin-ma-pau-poo, khwe-thay-paw
Philippines: baho-baho, bolas-bolas, budbuda, kanding-kanding, kolokong-kabayo, singilan, tuway-tuway
Thailand: saapraeng saapkaa, yaa suap raeng
Viet Nam: cây cut lon
DESCRIPTION
Annual herb with fluffy flowerheads with green, purplish or reddish stems [0.3-1 (1.5) m tall] covered in short white hairs on young parts and nodes; shallow fibrous roots.
Leaves: Bright green, sparsely hairy, rough with prominent veins, triangular to egg-shaped (20-100 mm long and 5-50 mm wide) margins bluntly toothed with blunt or pointed tips, in opposite pairs, hairy petioles (5-75 mm); characteristic odour when crushed smelling like a male goat.
Flowers: Blue to lavender, sometimes with a white head in compact terminal flowerheads bearing 4–18 flowerheads (4–5mm across and 4–6 mm long), with slender, hardly exserted styles as opposed to its congener A. houstonianum, which has longer and thicker exserted styles in heads that are about 6–9 mm accross; slightly aromatic.
Fruits: Brown and one-seeded.
ORIGIN
Central and South America and West Indies.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Roadsides, railways, wasteland, disturbed land, fallow land, croplands, plantations, managed pasture, drainage ditches, forest edges/gaps, grasslands, natural pasture, riparian areas, lowlands, wetlands and coastal dunes.
IMPACTS
This weed is allelopathic and as a result readily displaces native plant species. It excludes native grasses and medicinally important plants, reduces native plant abundance and creates homogenous monospecific
stands (Dogra et al. 2009). In Hawaii in threatens the survival of native species including Brighamia insignis (Centre for Plant Conservation, 2004, in CABI, 2016). It causes yield reductions of major staple crops in
India, and invades rangelands displacing native grasses and as a result reducing the amount of available forage. It also reduces crop yields, and is an important alternate host of a number of economically important crop pathogens and nematodes. In Tigray, Ethiopia, accidental consumption of the seeds with sorghum grains was implicated in the cause of liver disease resulting in the deaths of 27 people and numerous livestock.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/
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Alexandrium minutum
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SYSTEM
Marine
COMMON NAMES
English: red tide phytoplankton, red tide dinoflagellate
DESCRIPTION
Alexandrium minutum is a toxic single-celled armoured dinoflagellate that is well characterized morphologically in Balech, 1995. Cells are spherical in shape and small-sized, 15 to 29 um in diameter. The cell is green-brown in colour with a theca (clear protective covering). Small details on this theca differentiate A.minutum from other Alexandrium species. Cysts of A. minutum are from spherical to slightly flattened in shape and from circular (25–35 um diameter) when seen from above to oval (28–35 um long, 20–30 um wide) in lateral view. The most common cell content is granular material and a more or less condensed yellow–orange accumulation body. Nevertheless, globular content is also observed in some cysts (Bravo et al., 2006).
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN: Malaysia
WORLD: Atlantic – Northeast, Denmark, Ireland, Mediterranean and Black Sea, Portugal, Sweden, Turkey, United States, Australia, Egypt, New Zealnd, Spain, Taiwan, United Kingdom
PATHWAY
Transport – Ship/boat Ballast Water
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
The red-tide dinoflagellate may be accidentally transferred with ballast water (Hallegraeff and Bolch 1992, NIMPIS, 2002).
IMPACTS
Alexandrium minutum produces toxins which are toxic to some zooplankton and fish and can reduce copepod reproduction. The toxins are bioaccumulated in zooplankton, shellfish and crabs, the consumption of which can lead to paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) in humans and other mammals.
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) 2015. Species profile Alexandrium minutum. Available from: http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1023 [Accessed 09 September 2019]
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Anas platyrhynchos
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SYSTEM
Freshwater; Terrestrial
COMMON NAMES
English: Mallard
DESCRIPTION
Anas platyrhynchos is a medium to large dabbling duck ranging from about 50-60 cm in length and 1-1.3 kg. It is strongly sexually dimorphic. Breeding males bear a distinctive green head, narrow white neck-ring, brown breast, brownish-gray dorsal feathers, pale gray sides and belly, black rump and under tail coverts, white outer tail, and strongly recurved black central tail feathers. Their wings are a pale gray with a distinct iridescent blue upperside and secondaries bordered with white leading and trailing edges, white under-wing coverts, and pale gray undersides. Bills are yellow to olive and legs and feet are orange to red. Females have a broken streaky pattern of buff, white, gray, to black on brown. They have white outer tail feathers and under tail coverts, a white belly, and a prominent dark eyeline. Females have similar wings to males including the distinct blue markings. Their bills are gray-black to orange and legs and feet orange to red. Non-breeding male and juvenile plummages similar to female with males bearing a dark green head and both being darker (Drilling et al., 2002; Sibley, 2003).
NATIVE RANGE
ASEAN: Malaysia; Myanmar; Philippines; Viet Nam
WORLD: Afghanistan; Albania; Algeria; Andorra; Armenia; Aruba; Austria; Azerbaijan; Bahamas; Bahrain; Bangladesh; Belarus; Belgium; Belize; Bermuda; Bhutan; Bosnia And Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Canada; China; Colombia; Costa Rica; Croatia; Cuba; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; Egypt; Eritrea; Estonia; Ethiopia; Falkland Islands (Malvinas); Faroe Islands; Finland; France; Georgia; Germany; Greece; Greenland; Guam; Guatemala; Haiti; Honduras; Hong Kong; Hungary; Iceland; India; Iran, Islamic Republic Of; Iraq; Ireland; Israel; Italy; Japan; Jordan; Kazakhstan; Kenya; Korea, Democratic People's Republic Of; Korea, Republic Of; Kuwait; Kyrgyzstan; Latvia; Lebanon; Libyan; Arab Jamahiriya; Liechtenstein; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic Of; Malta; Mauritania; Mexico; Moldova, Republic Of; Mongolia; Montenegro; Morocco; Nepal; Netherlands; Netherlands Antilles; Nicaragua; Northern Mariana Islands; Norway; Oman; Pakistan; Panama; Poland; Portugal; Puerto Rico; Qatar; Romania; Russian Federation; Saint Pierre And Miquelon; San Marino; Saudi Arabia; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Somalia; South Georgia And The South Sandwich Islands; Spain; Sudan; Sweden; Switzerland; Syrian Arab Republic; Taiwan; Tajikistan; Trinidad And Tobago; Tunisia; Turkey; Turkmenistan; Turks And Caicos Islands; Ukraine; United Arab Emirates; United Kingdom; United States; Uzbekistan; Yemen
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN: Brunei Darussalam; Thailand
WORLD: Antigua And Barbuda; Australia; Cayman Islands; Cook Islands; Djibouti; Falkland Islands (Malvinas); Gambia; Gibraltar; Guadeloupe; Jamaica; Kiribati; Mali; Marshall; Islands; Martinique; Micronesia, Federated States Of; New Caledonia; New Zealand; Niger; Nigeria; Saint Vincent And The Grenadines; Senegal; Seychelles; South Africa; Svalbard And Jan Mayen; United States; Vanuatu; Virgin Islands, U.S.; Zambia
PATHWAY
Escape - Farmed animals; Ornamental purpose
Release - Hunting in the wild
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Farming: Mallard domestic breeds or barnyard ducks are used worldwide for meat (Huang et al., 2007). Escapes to the wild are frequent.Anas platyrhynchos is an extremely popular game bird and has been introduced to new locations for that reason (Uyeharaet al., 2007).Anas platyrhynchos has been introduced to new locations to stock ponds (Uyehara et al, 2007).
IMPACTS
Introductions and range expansions of A. platyrhynchos for game purposes pose a threat of competition and hybridization to native waterfowl. Also, recent studies hold the mallard as a likely vector for the highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) (H5N1).
Global Invasive Species Database (2020) Species profile: Anas platyrhynchos. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Anas+platyrhynchos on 07-04-2020.
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Anoplolepis gracilipes
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SYSTEM
Terrestrial
COMMON NAMES
English: yellow crazy ant; crazy ant; long-legged ant
Indonesia: gramang ant
DESCRIPTION
Anoplolepis gracilipes is one of the largest invasive ants and are typically small to medium-sized and range from 1-2mm, like Wasmannia auropunctata, to more than 5mm (Holway et al. 2002). The ant, also known as the long-legged ant, is notable for its remarkably long legs and antennae. A. gracilipes workers are monomorphic, displaying no physical differentiation (Holway et al. 2002). It has a yellow-brownish body colour, and is weakly sclerotized. Workers have a long slender gracile body, with the gaster usually darker than the head and thorax. It may subdue or kill invertebrate prey or small vertebrates by spraying formic acid.
NATIVE RANGE
ASEAN: Brunei Darussalam; Cambodia; Indonesia; Malaysia; Myanmar; Philippines; Singapore; Thailand; Viet Nam
WORLD: China; India; Sri Lanka
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN: Brunei Darussalam; Indonesia; Malaysia
WORLD: American Samoa; Australia; Caroline Islands; Chile; China; Christmas Island; Cook Islands; Fiji; French Polynesia; Guam; Hong Kong; India; Japan; Kiribati; Marshall Islands; Mauritius; Mexico; Micronesia, Federated States Of; New Caledonia; New Zealand; Niue; Northern Mariana Islands; Palau; Papua New Guinea; Reunion; Samoa; Seychelles; Solomon Islands; South Africa; Taiwan; Tanzania, United Republic Of; Tokelau; Tonga; Tuvalu; United States; United States Minor Outlying Islands; Vanuatu; Wallis And Futuna
PATHWAY
Transport - Container/bulk; Contaminant nursery material; Food contaminant; Hitchhikers in or on plane; Hitchhikers on ship/boat; Machinery/equipment; Organic packing material; Timber trade; Transportation of habitat material; Vehicles
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Transported in road vehicles, machinery, boats, and aircraft. Transported in packaging material, timber.Translocated in soil, produce and timber. Transported in soil and produce.Transported in soil, packaging materials, pallets. Deliberate introductions for biological control of plant pests on coconut, coffee and cacao plantations. Transported in goods, packaging, pallets in container. Anoplolepis gracilipes has entered Australian ports in sea cargo containers in Cairns and Brisbane, Queensland, Australia and been intercepted in Fremantle, Western Australia.Translocated in soil, produce and timber. Transported in soil, packaging materials, pallets.
IMPACTS
Anoplolepis gracilipes (so called because of their frenetic movements) have invaded native ecosystems and caused environmental damage from Hawaii to the Seychelles and Zanzibar. On Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean, they have formed multi-queen supercolonies. They are also decimating the red land crab (Gecarcoidea natalis) populations. Crazy ants also prey on, or interfere in, the reproduction of a variety of arthropods, reptiles, birds and mammals on the forest floor and canopy. Their ability to farm and protect sap-sucking scale insects, which damage the forest canopy on Christmas Island, is one of their more surprising attributes. Although less than 5% of the rainforest on Christmas Island has been invaded so far, scientists are concerned that endangered birds such as the Abbott’s booby (Sula abbotti), which nests nowhere else in the world, could eventually be driven to extinction through habitat alteration and direct attack by the ants.
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2020) Species profile: Anoplolepis gracilipes. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Anoplolepis+gracilipes on 07-04-2020.
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Anoplophora chinensis
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SYSTEM
Terrestrial
COMMON NAMES
English: citrus long-horned beetle
DESCRIPTION
The eggs are 5.5 millimeters by 1.7 millimeters, elongate, sub-cylindrical, smooth-surfaced, and tapering at both ends; initially creamy white, they turn yellowish-brown when ready to hatch (Lieu 1945, in Gyeltshen and Hodges 2005). Larvae are typical round-headed woodborers. The legless grubs are 5 millimeters long at the time of hatching and grow to a size of 52 millimeters. They are a creamy white with some yellow/amber chitinzed patterns on the prothorax and a brown mark on the front side (Gyeltshen and Hodges 2005; MAF 2005). The pupa is 27 to 38 millimeters long; it has elytra that only partially covers the membranous hind wings and curves around to the ventral surface of the body (Gyeltshen and Hodges 2005). The adult citrus longhorn has a typical cerambycid beetle body shape. Females are larger than males; the male is 25 millimeters long and the female is 35 millimeters long. The beetle is glossy black to blue-black (following emergence from the tree) and finely punctuated (bearing tiny dots or points) with a series of irregular white hair spots on the elytra (EPPO Undated; Walker 2008). (The elytra is a modified, hardened forewing of certain insect orders, notably beetles). The elytra of females is parallel whereas the elytra of males is distally tapered (Walker 2008). The antennae have 11 segments, the joints of the antennae are black with a blue-grey base; this gives them a striped appearance. The antennae are longer than the body (1.7 to 2 times the body-length in males and 1.2 times the body-length in females) (Walker 2008). The pronotum has a prominent pointed process on both sides. (The pronotum is the upper surface of the prothorax; the shape of the pronotum is often important in identification of beetles)
NATIVE RANGE
ASEAN: Myanmar; Viet Nam
WORLD: China; Hong Kong; Japan; Macao
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
WORLD: France; Germany; Italy; Netherlands; United Kingdom; United States
PATHWAY
Transport - Container/bulk; Contaminant nursery material; Organic packing material; Timber trade; Transportation of habitat material
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
The insect could be transported in wood products including logs, lumber, wooden packing materials, pallets or dunnage (NAFC 2001).High risk goods associated with the transfer of insect pests include consignments of stones, cast iron or electronic goods imported from Asia (Krehan 2002).International trade in nursery stock is considered a high risk pathway for the spread of plant pests (Forest Research Institute 2007). Regulated plants in the European Community under recent (2008) emergency directives include: Acer spp., Aesculus hippocastanum, Alnus spp., Betula spp., Carpinus spp., Citrus spp., Corylus spp., Cotoneaster spp., Fagus spp., Lagerstroemia spp., Malus spp., Platanus spp., Populus spp., Prunus spp., Pyrus spp., Salix spp., and Ulmus spp. All consignments carrying these plant species are high-risk in terms of their potential for carrying A. chinensis individuals or infestations (Commission Of The European Communities 2008).The larvae may move in felled timber and in nursery stock. In bonsai, they are more often found in field-collected plants than those grown under supervised nursery conditions (NPPO 2008).The insect could be transported in wood products including logs, lumber, wooden packing materials, pallets or dunnage (NAFC 2001). IMPACTS Both the citrus and Asian longhorn beetles originate from Eastern Asia where they seriously damage forest and agricultural plant hosts; both pose a potential economic and ecological threat to urban and natural environments where they are introduced in North America and Europe.
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2020) Species profile: Anoplophora chinensis. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Anoplophora+chinensis on 07-04-2020.
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Antigonon leptopus
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KNOTWEED FAMILY
Polygonaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: bride’s tears, chain of love, coral bells, coral creeper, love vine
Indonesia: bunga air mata pengantin
Malaysia: bunga berteh, bunga bonet
Philippines: cadena de amor, kantutay
Thailand: phuang-chomphuu
Viet Nam: hoa ti-gôn
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen climber or vine with tendrils, angular stems [6–10 (–15 m long]; hairless or with young shoots covered in brownish or reddish hairs; older stems brown and woody near base; underground tubers.
Leaves: Light green on upper surface, pale green below, membranous, conspicuous network of veins, heart-shaped or triangular (2.5–15 cm long and 2–10 cm wide), margins entire, wavy or bluntly toothed with pointed tips, leaf stalks 1–5 cm long, slightly winged.
Flowers: Bright pink, sometimes white, in clusters (4–20 cm long) at the tips of branches, tips of clusters ending in a short tendril. Fruits: Achenes (small, dry, one-seeded fruits that don’t open at maturity), brown, cone-shaped or three-angled (8–12 mm long and 4–7 mm wide), covered in the papery remains of the flower ‘petals.’
ORIGIN
Mexico
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed areas, wastelands, urban open space, forest edges/gaps, riparian vegetation and coastal sand dunes.
IMPACTS
Smothers native trees, out-competes understorey plants and alters fire regimes (Langeland et al., 2008; USDA-NRCS, 2011). On Christmas Island (Indian Ocean), it is ‘rampant on sea and inland cliffs and in previously mined areas where it may be hampering the annual migration of crabs and interfering with natural regeneration’ (Swarbrick and Hart, 2000). It has been estimated to cover 20% of the island of Saint Eustatius (Caribbean) (Ernst and Ketner, 2007).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/
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Argemone mexicana
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POPPY FAMILY
Papaveraceae
COMMON NAMES
English: Mexican poppy, Mexican thistle, prickly poppy
Indonesia: druju, celangkringan
Malaysia: chelang keriugan, pokok popi
Myanmar: kye-ja
Philippines: kachumba, kasubang-aso, diluariu
Thailand: fin naam
Viet Nam: cà dai hoa vàng, gai cua, mùi cua
DESCRIPTION
Annual, very spiny herb (up to 0.9 m high); stems exude a yellow sap when cut.
Leaves: Grey or bluish-green, with prominent white veins and yellowmidvein (5–22 cm long and 3–7 cm wide), deep lobed with sharp spines; leaves of A. ochroleuca Sweet. are a darker shade of green.
Flowers: Bright yellow (2.5–5 cm across) as opposed to pale yellow or creamy white in A. ochroleuca.
Fruits: Capsules (dry fruits that open at maturity), spiny, green turning brown as they mature, egg-shaped (2.5–4 cm long), splitting into 3–6 lobes releasing small black seeds (1.5 mm across).
ORIGIN
Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Florida (USA), Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela and the Caribbean.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Accidentally as a contaminant.
INVADES
Roadsides, railway lines, disturbed land, wasteland, urban open space, fallow land, crops, managed pasture, riparian areas, gullies and dry river courses.
IMPACTS
Reduces plant diversity and has an inhibitory effect on the germination and seedling growth of vegetables (Hazarika and Sannigrahi, 2001). Weed residues may also affect the growth and development of bambara
groundnut and sorghum (Karikari et al., 2000). Ingestion of seeds by poultry can result in death, and grazing animals can be poisoned if the seeds are consumed in hay or chaff. Harvesting of crops in the presence
of this weed can also result in injuries. Edible vegetable oil, either accidentally contaminated with A. mexicana, or intentionally adulterated by unscrupulous traders, has resulted in epidemic dropsy in India. An
epidemic also occurred in South Africa following the contamination of wheat flour (Sharma et al., 1999). A. mexicana has been identified as an important allergen in India (Singh and Kumar, 2004).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/
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Aulacaspis yasumatsui
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SYSTEM
Terrestrial
COMMON NAMES
English: snow scale, Thai scale
DESCRIPTION
All adult female Aulacaspis yasumatsui (cycad aulacaspis scale (CAS)) have a waxy outer covering for the protection of themselves and their eggs (the scale) (Weissling et al. 1999). The scale of mature females of A. yasumatsui are: white, 1.2-1.6mm long and highly variable in form. They tend to have a pyriform shape with the exuviae at one end, but are often irregularly circular, conforming with leaf veins, adjacent scales and other objects. The ventral scale is extremely thin to incomplete. The scale of the juvenile male is similar to those of other species of Diaspididae, being 0.5-0.6mm long, white and tricarinate, with exuviae at the cephalic end. Scales of males are nearly always more numerous than those of females (Howard et al. 1999). Adult males are orange-brown, and are similar in appearance to tiny flying midges, with one pair of wings and well-developed legs and antennae (Heu et al. 2003). Adult females are also orange in colour (Weissling et al. 1999).
NATIVE RANGE
ASEAN: Thailand
WORLD: China
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN: Singapore
WORLD: Cayman Islands; Cote D'ivoire; France; Guam; Hong Kong; New Zealand; Northern Mariana Islands; Palau; Puerto Rico; Taiwan; United States; Virgin Islands, U.S.
PATHWAY
Transport - Parasites on plants
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Aulacaspis yasumatsui (cycad aulacaspis scale (CAS)) can be transported to new locations by the import of infested cycad plants. There is high potential for CAS to spread in this manner as one or more fecund females hidden in the cycad can easily escape detection (EPPO, 2005).
IMPACTS
Both the citrus and Asian longhorn beetles originate from Eastern Asia where they seriously damage forest and agricultural plant hosts; both pose a potential economic and ecological threat to urban and natural environments where they are introduced in North America and Europe.
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2020) Species profile: Aulacaspis yasumatsui. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Aulacaspis+yasumatsui on 07-04-2020.
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Austroeupatorium inulifolium
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DAISY FAMILY
Asteraceae
COMMON NAMES
English: austroeupatorium
Indonesia: kirinyuh, babanjaran
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen spreading, scrambling shrub [1–2.8 (–5) m tall]; stems covered with dense short hairs.
Leaves: Dark green above, pale green and covered with short fine hairs below; spear-shaped (7–18 cm long and 2.5–8 cm wide), leaves held opposite each other on stem on wedge-shaped leaf stalks (0.5–3 cm long).
Flowers: White in terminal, cylindrical heads (5–6 mm long and 2–3 mm wide), 8–15 flowers in each head, fragrant.
Fruits: Achenes (small, dry, one-seeded fruits that don’t open at maturity) brown, somewhat elongated with almost parallel sides, angular (1.5 mm long), with a whitish ring of hairs (pappus) (4 mm long) on the top of the fruit.
ORIGIN
Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Roadsides, wastelands, disturbed areas, wastelands, urban open space, perennial crops, plantations, forest edges/gaps, grasslands, savannah, riparian zones and wetlands.
IMPACTS
Displaces native plant species and invades areas planted with perennial crops reducing yields and increasing management costs. In the Philippines, it forms dense thickets in rubber, tea and rosella plantations, upland rice plantations and in clearings of secondary forests (Waterhouse and Mitchell, 1998). In Sri Lanka, A. inulifolium has spread into the Knuckles Conservation Area, and has invaded many ecosystems such as grasslands, plantations and roadsides. It is unpalatable to livestock and reduces livestock-carrying capacities.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 10 October 2018
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Bidens pilosa
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DAISY FAMILY
Asteraceae
COMMON NAMES
English: black jack, beggar’s tick, broom stick, cobbler’s pegs, Spanish needle
Indonesia: ajeran
Lao PDR: pak kwan cham
Myanmar: moat-so-ma-hlan, ta-se-urt
Philippines: borburtak, enwad, kaperek, nguwad, puriket, pisau-pisau, tubak-tubak
Thailand: puen nok sai
Viet Nam: xuyen chi
DESCRIPTION
Annual or evergreen erect herb (up to 1 m tall), hairless stems, fourangled, purplish green in colour, simple or branched.
Leaves: Green, compound with 3–5 leaflets each; leaflets variable but usually egg-shaped with a broader and rounded base tapering towards the end to spear-shaped [3–7 (–10) cm long and 1–2 (–5) cm wide], margins with forward-pointing sharp projections or teeth, terminal leaflet always larger than lateral (side) ones.
Flowers: White petals, centre yellow (7–8 mm wide), usually borne singly on stalks (1 cm long).
Fruits: Achenes (small, dry, one-seeded fruits that don’t open at maturity), black, slender (1.5 mm long), ribbed, 2–4 barbed bristles or awns at terminal end.
ORIGIN
Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela and the Caribbean.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Accidentally as a contaminant.
INVADES
Roadsides, railway lines, disturbed land, wastelands, fallow land, crops, plantations, managed pasture, gardens, drainage ditches, forest edges/ gaps, woodlands, riversides, lowlands, floodplains and gullies.
IMPACTS
Under favourable conditions a single plant can produce 3,000–6,000 seeds per year, with 3–4 generations annually. This, together with its allelopathic properties, allows it to form dense stands rapidly, displacing
native vegetation. In Southeast Asia, this weed is problematic for those growing cabbage, pineapple, guava and plantation crops (Waterhouse, 1993). Densities of eight blackjack plants per square metre, in soybean
fields in Argentina, reduced yields by 43% (Arce et al., 1995). Dry bean harvests in Uganda and Peru were reduced by 48% and 18–48%, respectively, as a result of the presence of B. pilosa. B. pilosa is also a
host and vector to harmful parasites such as root knot nematodes and tomato spotted wilt virus (Mvere, 2004; DPI, 2008).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/
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Boiga irregularis
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SYSTEM
Terrestrial
COMMON NAMES
English: brown tree snake; brown cat snake
DESCRIPTION
Boiga irregularis is a slender, climbing snake with large eyes and a vertical pupil, giving it improved nocturnal vision (Fritts & Leasman-Tanner 2001). The head is considerably wider than the neck. Markings may be either vague or distinct blotches on a brownish-yellow background. In parts of Australia, blue or red banding on a white background may be seen (Rodda 1999). Black speckling may also be present on some individuals. Brown tree snakes are about 38 centimeters at hatching and may reach three meters long, but are usually one to two meters. They are adept climbers and can crawl through very small openings (USDA-APHIS 2001).
NATIVE RANGE
ASEAN: Indonesia (Sulawesi, Maluku, Papua)
WORLD: Australia; Papua New Guinea (North Solomons, Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea (main island group); Solomon Islands (South Solomons)
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
WORLD: Guam
PATHWAY
Release - Biological control
Transport - Container/bulk; Hitchhikers in or on plane; Machinery/equipment
Escape - Pet/aquarium/terrarium species
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
The rapid spread of the snake in Guam after 1960 is unexplained. It is plausible that some people might have intentionally spread the snake to suppress rat populations, which were very high on Guam before establishment of the snake (Beardsley 1964, SavidgThe attraction of the brown tree snake to small, dark places (Pendleton 1947, in Rodda Fritts & Conry 1992) leaves little doubt that they are potential stowaways in military and non-military cargo (Rodda Fritts & Conry 1992).The brown tree snake is an excellent climber, using minute irregularities to ascend almost any structure, is extremely efficient at entering small openings and hiding in them for protracted periods and can survive for months without food (Perry et al).
IMPACTS
When the brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) was accidentally introduced to Guam it caused the local extinction of most of the island’s native bird and lizard species. It also caused "cascading" ecological effects by removing native pollinators, causing the subsequent decline of native plant species. The ecosystem fragility of other Pacific islands to which cargo flows from Guam has made the potential spread of the brown tree snake from Guam a major concern.
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2020) Species profile: Boiga irregularis. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Boiga+irregularis on 07-04-2020
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Brachiaria mutica
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GRASS FAMILY
Poaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: buffalo grass, Dutch grass, giant couch, Mauritius signal grass, para grass, Scotch grass
Cambodia: smau barang
Indonesia: jukut inggris, rumput malela, sukut kolonjono
Thailand: ya khon
Viet Nam: co lông tây, co lông para
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen grass, stoloniferous [creeping or trailing stem (culm) that grows above ground for part of its length, rooting at the nodes], culms (grass stem) up to 5 m long with upright portion tall [0.9–2 (–3) m high], sheaths (tubular structure that clasps stem) are hairy.
Leaves: Green, moderately hairy (15–30 cm long and 3–20 mm wide).
Flowers: Inflorescence is a panicle or ‘flowering spike’ (10–25 cm long and 5–10 cm wide) with 5–20 branchlets (each 2–13 cm long), each with many almost hairless flower spikelets (2.5–3.5 mm long).
ORIGIN
Sub-Saharan Africa
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Fodder and erosion control
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, drainage ditches, lowlands, swamps, wetlands.
IMPACTS
Can form dense stands replacing native wetland plants and interfering with aquatic ecosystems. Para grass chokes streams and wetlands, slowing water flow and increasing sedimentation (Arthington et al., 1983; Humphries et al., 1994; Bunn et al., 1998). In North Queensland, Australia, infestations reduced channel discharge capacity by 85% (Bunn et al., 1998) increasing the frequency and intensity of floods. Poor drainage (excessive waterlogging) can also reduce sugarcane yields by up to A $100,000 per property per annum in coastal North Queensland, Australia. In the Babinda area, Australia, cane growers spend an estimated A $23,000 each year on herbicide to control para grass in drainage ditches (Fisk, 1991). Infestations can also affect nesting habits and feeding areas for waterfowl (Humphries et al., 1994). For example, it is destroying the breeding habitat of the magpie goose (Anseranas semipalmata Latham) and contributing to the decline of the endangered yellow chat (Epthianura crocea tunneyi Mathews) in the Alligator River floodplain in the Northern Territory, Australia. Infestations also increase the frequency and intensity of fires contributing to further biodiversity loss. Para grass is an alternative host for a number of agriculturally important pests and diseases (Holm et al., 1991).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/
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Brontispa longissima
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SYSTEM
Terrestrial
COMMON NAMES
English: coconut leaf hispid; coconut hispine beetle; Hispid palm leaf beetle
DESCRIPTION
Descriptions vary. A small orange and black beetle; 10 mm long by 4 mm wide. The head and antennae are black and a small part of the wing cover is yellow-brown. The remainder of the wing cover is black (French 2006).The adult beetle is reddish brown in colour and is about 7.5 to 10 mm long and 1.5 to 2 mm wide; females which are generally larger than the males (Wickramananda 2007). Eggs are wide brown and measure 1.4mm by 0.5mm; larvae measure 8 to 10mm long; pupae measure 9 to 10mm long and 2mm wide (FAO 2007; ASEAN IPM 2007).
NATIVE RANGE
ASEAN: Indonesia
WORLD: Papua New Guinea
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN: Cambodia, Indonesia; Lao People's Democratic Republic; Malaysia; Myanmar; Philippines; Singapore; Thailand; Viet Nam
WORLD: American Samoa; Australia; China; Fiji; French Polynesia; Guam; Hong Kong; Maldives; Nauru; New Caledonia; Northern Mariana Islands; Papua New Guinea; Samoa; Solomon Islands; Taiwan; Uruguay; Vanuatu
PATHWAY
Transport - Parasites on plants
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Lack of strict quarantine on the movement of palms (particularly ornamentals) is considered as a major factor in the spread of B. longissima (FAO 2007). It is suspected that this pest was accidentally introduced into Vietnam, the Maldives and the Philippines with shipments of ornamentals. The beetle can travel long distances by various means of transportation (Jian 2007). The spread of B. longissima and other coconut pests in Oceania is mainly attributed to human activities (Dharmaraju 1984, in FAO 2007).
IMPACTS
The Hispid palm leaf beetle attacks palm leaf fronds (as the name suggests) especially those of the coconut tree. It is an introduced pest in many islands in the Pacific Ocean and also some nations of the Pacific Rim including Taiwan. Its impact on tropical and subtropical cropping systems can be severe.
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2020) Species profile: Brontispa longissima. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Brontispa+longissima on 07-04-2020.
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Broussonetia papyrifera
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MULBERRY FAMILY
Moraceae
COMMON NAMES
English: paper mulberry, tapa cloth tree
Cambodia: krung tehs, mon barang
Indonesia: daluang, saeh
Myanmar: malaing
Thailand: por-gra-saa, por-saa, ton-saa
Viet Nam: cây duong
DESCRIPTION
Small tree or shrub with milky sap (20 m or higher) and a trunk diameter of 0.6 m; round or spreading crown, branches smooth and mottled grey, marked with orange-tan stipular scars, shallow rooted; sheds most of its
leaves at the end of the growing season.
Bark: Tan or light grey with pale orange to light tan stripes, becoming yellowish with age, smooth to slightly fissured.
Leaves: Greyish, rough surface above and fuzzy-downy below, simple, shape variable – either egg-shaped with a broad and round base tapering towards the end, heart-shaped or deeply lobed (7–20 cm long), margins with forward-pointing fine projections or teeth; held alternately or almost opposite each other on stems; leaf stalks are 3–10 cm long.
Flowers: Male flowers yellowish-white in clusters (3.5–7.5 cm); female flowers in rounded clusters, round heads (about 1.3 cm wide), hairy.
Fruits: Syncarp (a fleshy compound fruit), berry-like, initially green turning red, purple to orange as it matures, fleshy, round (1–2 cm wide) with many embedded or protruding tiny red seeds.
ORIGIN
China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan and Thailand.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Fuelwood, fodder, paper, pulp, shade and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed areas, wastelands, urban open space, plantations, forest edges/gaps and riparian vegetation.
IMPACTS
Forms dense stands that displace native species, prevent forest regeneration and reduce water availability. In Pakistan, B. papyrifera limits the growth of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. (Fabaceae), Morus alba L. (Moraceae) and Ziziphus sp. In the Philippines, native species such as Trema orientalis (L.) Blume (Cannabaceae), Macaranga tanarius (L.) Müll. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae), Melanolepis multiglandulosus (Reinw. ex Blume) Rchb.f. & Zoll. (Euphorbiaceae), Mallotus philippinensis (Lam.) Muell. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae), Ficus nota (Blanco) Merr. (Moraceae), Ficus septica Burm., Ficus ulmifolia Lam., Polyscias nodosa (Blume) Seem (Araliaceae), and other species were displaced by paper mulberry (Baguinon et al., 2003). Paper mulberry produces considerable amounts of allergenic pollen which has been shown to exacerbate asthma in sufferers. In Islamabad, Pakistan, paper mulberry can account for 75% of the total pollen count contributing to ill health and even death in the old and infirm.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 10 October 2018
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Bugula neritina
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SYSTEM
Marine
COMMON NAMES
English: bryozoan, common bugula, brown bryozoan
DESCRIPTION
Bugula neritina forms flexible bushy colonies, branching biserial, to about 10cm high and is purplish-brown in colour. Zooids white and globular, with the outer corner pointed (Bishop Museum 2002, in Gordon and Mawatari, 1992). Zooids are large and measure an average of 0.97 X 0.28mm. B. neritina differs from other species in this genus in that it possesses no avicularia and no spines. The lophophore measures an average of 0.764mm in diameter and bears 23 tentacles (SMSFP 2001). Embryos brooded in ovicells are dark brown in colour and measure approximately 0.25mm in diameter (SMSFP 2001 in Winston 1982).
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN: Philippines
WORLD: Argentina, Australia, Bermuda, Chile, Ecuador, France, India, Italy, Korea Democratic People’s Republic of, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Mexico, New Zealand, Spain, United Kingdom, Atlantic-Western Central, Belgium, Brazil, China, Egypt, Germany, Israel, Japan, Korea Republic of, Mediterranean and Black Sea, Netherlands, Panama, Puerto Rico, Turkey, United States
PATHWAY
Transport – Ship/boat ballast water; Ship/boat hull fouling
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Bugula neritina attaches to oyster shells and be transferred along with oyster shippings (Cohen 2005). Bugula neritina can be transported via tiny colonies attached to the sides of ballast tanks or on floating material inside the ballast tanks (Cohen 2005). Ship/boat hull fouling is a common means of movement of Bugula neritina colonies and a likely source of ongoing introductions.
IMPACTS
Bryozoans are one of the main organisms to encrust and foul ships, piers, buoys and other man-made marine surfaces and structures (VMNH 2005).
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) 2015. Species profile Bugula neritina. Available from: http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1080 [Accessed 09 September 2019]
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Caiman crocodilus
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SYSTEM
Freshwater; Terrestrial
COMMON NAMES
English: spectacled caiman; common caiman
DESCRIPTION
The common caiman is a relatively small to medium sized crocodilian. Males generally reach 2.0-2.5 m with the largest specimens reported to approaching 3 m. Females are smaller, reaching a mean maximum size of 1.4 m, with larger specimens reaching 1.8 m. The common caiman is also known as the spectacled caiman, due to a bony ridge present between the eyes (infra-orbital bridge) which appears to join the eyes like a pair of spectacles. Juveniles are brown-cream colored with black spots and bands on the body and tail. Adults are dull olive-green to black with black bands basically on the tail. The enlarged fourth tooth of the lower jaw is not visible when the jaws are closed, as it is in all true crocodiles species (Behler, 1979), but in the oldest individuals, the front teeth and the fourth tooth of the lower jaw can perforate the upper jaw and can be visible when the mouth is closed.
NATIVE RANGE
WORLD: Argentina; Belize; Bolivia; Brazil; Colombia; Costa Rica; Ecuador; El Salvador; French Guiana; Guatemala; Guyana; Honduras; Mexico; Nicaragua; Panama; Paraguay; Peru; Suriname; Trinidad And Tobago; Venezuela
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN: Thailand
WORLD: Cuba; Puerto Rico; United States
PATHWAY
Escape - Pet/aquarium/terrarium species
IMPACTS
The common caiman (Caiman crocodilus), is currently the most abundant crocodilian species and is the most harvested crocodile in the hide industry. It poses a threat to native crocodilians through competition and is believed to be responsible for the introduction of the exotic parasite known as "caiman tongueworm" which infects local fish species in Puerto Rico. Caiman crocodilus is a generalist and opportunistic predator, but due their relative small size and lack of aggressive behaviour they do not in general represent a danger for humans, pets and farm animals.
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2020) Species profile: Caiman crocodilus. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Caiman+crocodilus on 07-04-2020.
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Calliandra houstoniana var. calothyrsus
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PEA FAMILY
Fabaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: calliandra, red calliandra
Indonesia: kaliandra, kaliandra merah
Malaysia: kaliandra
Viet Nam: muong hoa pháo
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen, thornless, often multi-stemmed leguminous shrub or small tree [5–6 (–12 m) tall] with a trunk diameter of 20 (–30) cm.
Bark: White to red-brown and hairless, sometimes finely hairy.
Leaves: Dark green, twice-divided (10–19 cm long) with 6–20 pairs of leaflet branchlets, each with 19–60 pairs of linear, somewhat elongated and pointed leaflets (5–8 mm long and 1 mm wide).
Flowers: Red in terminal clusters up to 30 cm long with numerous long shiny red stamens, showy.
Fruits: Pods (several-seeded dry fruits that split open at maturity), green turning brown as they mature, straight, flattened (8–13 cm long and 1–1.6 cm wide) with thickened and raised margins splitting open, with each half curling back, held erect on stem.
ORIGIN
Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua and Panama.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Fuelwood, building materials, fodder, ornament, soil conservation, nitrogen fixation and green manure.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, urban open space, plantation edges/gaps, forest edges/gaps, riparian vegetation and lowlands.
IMPACTS
It has the ability to form dense thickets, displacing native species, especially in riparian areas. It is an aggressive colonizer of disturbed habitats, is highly adaptable, and able to grow under a wide variety of soil and environmental conditions (Macqueen, 1992; Palmer et al., 1994). It has the potential to suppress other plants very quickly when competing for water and nutrients (CONABIO, 2014). In Kabale, Uganda, some farmers claimed that it competed with food crops, impacted negatively on soil nutrients and harboured pest birds. Calliandra also fixes nitrogen and as a result impacts on soil nutrient cycling.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 10 October 2018
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Canna indica
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CANNA FAMILY
Cannaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: African arrowroot, canna lily, edible canna, Indian shot, purple arrowroot
Cambodia: chek tehs
Indonesia: bunga kana, buah tasbeh, ganyong, ubi pikul
Lao PDR: kwàyz ké, kwàyz ph’uttha son
Malaysia: daun tasbeh, ganjong, pisang sebiak, pisang sebiak
Myanmar: adalut, butsarana
Philippines: batag-batag, balunsaying, korintas sa kalasan, kakuwintasan, tikas-tikas
Thailand:, bua lawong, phut, phuttaa-raksaa, phutthason, tharaksa
Viet Nam: chuoi hoa, ngai hoa
DESCRIPTION
Robust evergreen herb (1–2 m high) with a thick, branching, underground rhizome; leaves taper into slender petioles that form a sheath (tubular structure that clasps stem) around the main stem.
Leaves: Green, hairless, simple, elongated or oval (20–60 cm long and 10–30 cm wide), tapering to a point, margins entire, sheath clasping the stem similar to Canna × generalis Bailey, which also has purple-bronze leaves.
Flowers: Red or orange, usually yellow below, narrow (40–50 mm long), borne singly or in pairs at the tips of the flowering stems as opposed to Canna × generalis, which are yellow, red, orange, white or other colours, broad (80–90 mm long).
Fruits: Capsules (dry fruits that open at maturity), green turning brown as they mature, spiny, three-valved containing hard black seeds.
ORIGIN
Argentina, Belize, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela and the Caribbean.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Gardens, plantations, forest edges/gaps, drainage ditches, irrigation channels, dam/lake/river edges, ponds, lowlands, floodplains, swamps and wetlands.
IMPACTS
Forms dense clumps out-competing native plant species. It also restricts the flow of water contributing to increased sedimentation and flooding. Dense stands can also restrict access to water. It is also an alternative
host of a number of crop pests, including banana bunchy top virus, cucumber mosaic virus and tomato spotted wilt virus, and a range of other pests that cause pathogenic diseases. Chemical extracts have a negative impact on snail species (Tripathi and Singh, 2000).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/
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Carassius auratus
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SYSTEM
Freshwater
COMMON NAMES
English: goldfish
Malaysia: edible goldfish, ikan mas
Philippines: tawes
DESCRIPTION
A small to moderately-sized fish with a deep body and rounded cross-section. Large head and eyes with a small mouth and a forked tail. Scales are large and the single dorsal fin has 3-4 stout spines at the leading edge. Colour ranges from olive-bronze to deep golden along dorsal surface, fading to silvery-white along the belly (McDowall, 2000). May grow up to 41cm in length, 2kg in weight and live for 30 years in captivity (FishBase, 2004).
NATIVE RANGE
ASEAN: Lao People's Democratic Republic; Myanmar
WORLD: China; Hong Kong; Japan; Macao
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN: Indonesia; Malaysia; Philippines; Singapore; Thailand; Viet Nam
WORLD: Afghanistan; Albania; Argentina; Australia; Austria; Belarus; Belgium; Bolivia; Brazil; Canada; Chile; Colombia; Costa Rica; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; France; Germany; Greece; Hungary; India; Iran, Islamic Republic Of; Israel; Italy; Kazakhstan; Korea, Republic Of; Latvia; Lithuania; Madagascar; Mauritius; Mexico; Moldova, Republic Of; Namibia; Netherlands; New Caledonia; New Zealand; Norway; Pakistan; Peru; Poland; Portugal; Puerto Rico; Reunion; Romania; Russian Federation; Samoa; Saudi Arabia; Serbia And Montenegro; Slovakia; South Africa; Spain; Taiwan; Ukraine; United Kingdom; United States; Uruguay; Uzbekistan; Virgin Islands, U.S.; Zimbabwe
PATHWAY
Escape - Ornamental purpose; Pet/aquarium/terrarium species
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Often introduced to outdoor ponds as an ornamental fish. Introduced worldwide as aquarium fish.
IMPACTS
The passage of cyanobacteria through the goldfish intestine stimulates cyanobacterial growth, which may result in algal blooms occurring. The bottom-sucking feeding methods of goldfish can also contribute towards algal blooms by re-suspending nutrients, which makes them available to algae (Morgan & Beatty, 2004). Goldfish have also been known to prey upon the eggs, larvae and adult of native fishes (Morgan & Beatty, 2004), as well as increasing water turbidity and depleting aquatic vegetation (Richardson et al., 1995).
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2020) Species profile: Carassius auratus. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Carassius+auratus on 07-04-2020.
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Cardiospermum halicacabum
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SOAPBERRY FAMILY
Sapindaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: heart pea, heart seed, lesser balloon vine, love in a puff
Cambodia: am baeng baek, peng poh sraom, puos am baeng
Indonesia: paria gunung
Philippines: bangkolon, kana, paspalya
Viet Nam: cây tam phong
DESCRIPTION
Herbaceous or slightly woody evergreen climber [up to 1–3 (–6) m high] with tendrils (slender, usually twisting structure which aids ‘climbing’); grooved stems.
Leaves: Bright green, hairless or covered in minute hairs, compound, leaflets arranged in three sets of three, narrow and tapering to a point (3–5 cm long), side leaflets smaller, margins with deep and sharp forward-pointing projections or teeth.
Flowers: White or yellow (2–3 mm long), in a few-flowered, open clusters, on long stalks (5–10 cm long); two (2 cm long) paired tendrils just below inflorescence.
Fruits: Capsules (dry fruits that open at maturity), green turning brown as they mature, membranous inflated, nearly globular (25–30 mm long); seeds black, round, with a kidney-shaped white spot.
ORIGIN
Angola, Botswana, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Somalia, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe in Africa; Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela in South America; and the Caribbean.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, wasteland, urban open space, crops, plantations, gardens, forest edges/gaps, riparian areas, swamps and wetlands.
IMPACTS
Balloon vine smothers native vegetation, depriving it of sunlight and in so doing displaces native plant species. In Brazil, where C. halicacabum is considered to be native, it can reducesoybean crop yields by up to 26%(Brighenti et al., 2003; Dempsey, 2011). In Texas, there is also concern that it may contaminate certified soybean seeds since both seeds are similar in size and shape (Hurst, 1980). It is also considered to be a pest in sorghum, rice and oil palm plantations in Southeast Asia (Waterhouse, 1993).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/
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Cenchrus echinatus
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GRASS FAMILY
Poaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: buffel grass, bur grass, field sandbur, hedgehog grass, Mossman river grass
Indonesia: rumput daratan
Philippines: agingay, madiyong-madiyong, sagisi, rukut-dukut
Thailand: yaa son krachap, ya-bung
Viet Nam: co echin
DESCRIPTION
Short-lived, tufted grass with often branched stems (culms) (25–60 cm tall), hairless nodes, roots occasionally produced at the lowest joints.
Leaves: Green, sheath (tubular structure that clasps stem) partially encloses stem, usually hairless but sometimes with a few hairs, reddish or purplish on young plants and lower stems; blades are linear (5–25 cm long and 3–12 mm wide), narrowing to a point, some hairs along margins.
Flowers: Inflorescence is a panicle or ‘flowering spike’ (3–10 cm long and 1–1.3 cm wide).
Fruits: Burr-like structures in inflorescence (4–10 mm long), each with many sharp spines (2–5 mm long), reddish or purplish-green when young turning straw-coloured or dark brown; ‘burs’ contain seeds which are brown and have a flattened tip.
ORIGIN
Mexico and southern USA
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Accidentally as a contaminant
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed areas, fallow land, crops, managed pasture, gardens, grassland and sandy soils along the coast.
IMPACTS
Can readily establish large monocultures to the detriment of native plant species and the organisms that depend on them. On Laysan Island, Hawaii, it displaced the native bunchgrass, Eragrostis variabilis (Gaudich) Steud., and in so doing, reduced important breeding sites for two endemic, endangered land birds, the Laysan finch [Telespiza cantans (Wilson)], and the Laysan duck [Anas laysanensis Rothschild], as well as several species of indigenous seabirds and terrestrial arthropods (Flint and Rehkemper, 2002). The burs are apparently also dangerous for hatchlings of seabirds on the Northwestern Islands (Motooka et al., 2003). Burs in animal feed can also reduce their acceptability and palatability. Buffel grass is also a serious agricultural weed of orchards, vineyards, coffee, vegetables, bananas and coconuts. Crops competing for nutrients with C. echinatus typically have smaller leaf areas and lower growth rates and yields (Hammerton, 1981; Everaarts, 1993; Ramos and Pitelli, 1994). C. echinatus is also an alternative host for maize streak monogeminivirus and sugarcane streak monogeminivirus (Brunt et al., 1996).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/
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Cervus timorensis russa
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FAMILY Cervidae SYSTEM Terrestrial
COMMON NAME
INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS
Source: |
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Cestrum aurantiacum
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TOMATO FAMILY
Solanaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: orange cestrum, orange jessamine, yellow cestrum.
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen, much-branched, half-climbing shrub [1–2 (–6m) high], sparsely hairy stems and leaves; stems and leaves bruise easily, emitting an unpleasant smell.
Leaves: Light green, hairless, oval to egg-shaped (7–13 cm long and 2.5–7 cm wide), leaf stalk 1–4 cm long.
Flowers: Orange-yellow, tubular (17–21 mm long), 10–15 in axillary and terminal clusters.
Fruits: Berries (fleshy fruits that don’t open at maturity), white, spongy, round, small (10 mm across).
ORIGIN
Guatemala and probably elsewhere in Central America.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Hedge/barrier and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, plantations, drainage ditches, forest edges/gaps, woodlands, savannah, riversides and gullies.
IMPACTS
Readily ‘climbs’ into trees and over shrubs, smothering native vegetation and impoverishing biodiversity. In Kenya, C. aurantiacum has invaded over 4,000 hectares of the Cherangany Forest displacing valuable forage species. It is toxic to people and to livestock and has caused numerous cattle deaths. Cattle that have consumed the plant become tetchy, before becoming paralysed and dying. The unripe berries are also fatal if consumed by sheep, and its leaves lead to non-fatal poisoning (Bizimana, 1994). According to the community in Cherangany Forest, the species has also had a negative impact on bee populations.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 10 October 2018
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Channa argus
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SYSTEM
Freshwater
COMMON NAMES
English: northern snakehead; amur snakehead; eastern snakehead; ocellated snakehead
DESCRIPTION
The body of snakeheads is torpedo-shaped, which tapers towards the tail. They have a single, long dorsal fin, a long anal fin, and a small head with a large mouth (Cudmore & Mandrak 2006). Northern snakeheads are cylindrical fish that can grow up to 85 centimeters in length (Okada 1960, in Courtenay and Williams, 2004) however, in Russia there have been reports of captured specimens reaching 1.5 meters total length (Courtenay and Williams 2004). As the name implies, the scaled head of the fish looks like a snake; they have a large mouth with sharp teeth, a truncated, not rounded tail and are easily identified by dark irregular blotches along their sides (Sea Grant Pennsylvania 2007) on a background of golden tan to pale brown. This fish is capable of darkening its background colors to the point of almost obscuring the blotches. There is a dark stripe from just behind the eye to the upper edge of the operculum with another dark stripe below from behind the orbit extending to the lower quadrant of the operculum. Coloration of juveniles is virtually the same as in adults, a characteristic atypical for many snakehead species.
NATIVE RANGE
WORLD: China; Korea, Democratic People's Republic Of; Russian Federation
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN: Cambodia; Thailand; Viet Nam
WORLD: Canada; Czech Republic; Hong Kong; Japan; Kazakhstan; Korea, Republic Of; Nigeria; Slovakia; Turkmenistan; United States; Uzbekistan
PATHWAY
Release - Fishery in the wild; Release in nature for use
Escape - Live food and live baits; Pet/aquarium/terrarium species
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
The northern snakehead is a popular aquarium fish in Europe and Japan, however, because of their highly predacious nature snakeheads have not had a large following of interested hobbyists in the USA (Courtenay & Williams 2004). Some introductions are believed to be the result of intentional release of aquarium fish as they are very expensive to feed and soon outgrow their aquaria (Courtenay & Williams 2004). Many introductions of the northern snakehead are believed to be the result of intentional release of fish obtained from the live food trade (Courtenay & Williams 2004). The northern snakehead has been a market leader and is cultured in China and Korea (Courtenay & Williams 2004). This species has been exported to other nations, including Canada and the United States where it has been sold alive in certain ethnic markets and restaurants (Courtenay & Williams 2004).The northern snakehead is introduced to many locations for culture as a sport fish (Courtenay & Williams 2004).Many introductions of the northern snakehead are believed to be the result of intentional release of fish obtained from the live food trade (Courtenay & Williams 2004). The northern snakehead has been a market leader and is cultured in China and Korea (Courtenay & Williams 2004). This species has been exported to other nations, including Canada and the United States where it has been sold alive in certain ethnic markets and restaurants (Courtenay & Williams 2004). IMPACTS The cold temperate northern snakehead (Channa argus) is found in areas in Russia, China and Korea. It is known for its voracious predation of other fish species, ability to withstand freezing and ability to tolerate lack of water for up to four days.
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2020) Species profile: Channa argus. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Channa+argus on 07-04-2020.
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Charybdis japonica
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SYSTEM Marine, Terrestrial COMMON NAMES English: Asian crab, paddle crab, Asian paddle crab, swimming crab, blue crab
DESCRIPTION
Charybdis japonica have a carapace width of up to 12cm (Gust et al. 2003). They have a pilose (hairy) carapace (although amount of hair varies to little or none). The carapace has ridges with six frontal teeth, triangular and sharp. The inner supraorbital lobe is broadly triangular (Smith et al. 2003). Wee and Ng (1995) record the colour of C. japonica in Japan as mottled cream and purple. In the Waitemata harbour (New Zealand) specimens varied from pale green and off-white, through olive green to a deep chestnut with purplish markings on the carapace and upper surfaces of the appendages (Smith et al. 2003). In addition, most Waitemata specimens have yellow-orange markings, some with only a hint of yellow-orange and some with very noticeable brown-orange on parts of the carapace and the legs, especially on the chelae where the upper colouration grades into the white to off-white ventral surfaces (Smith et al. 2003).
NATIVE RANGE
ASEAN: Malaysia, Thailand
World: China, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea, Taiwan
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
New Zealand
PATHWAY
Transport – Ship/boat ballast water
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION The paddle crab may have been introduced from ship ballast water (Gust et al. 2003). This is known to be a potential route of spread of the Asian paddle crab.
IMPACTS
Disease transmission is one of the key potential impacts of the paddle crab in introduced environments. C. japonica is known to be a host or carrier of the White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) (Maeda et al. 1998, in Potential next pests 2003). WSSV is a serious fisheries threat as it infects a broad spectrum of crustaceans, and can cause cumulative mortalities of up to 100% within 3 to 10 days from the first sign of disease
(Lightner 1996, in Potential next pests 2003).
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) 2015. Species profile Charybdis japonica. Available from: http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1044 [Accessed 09 September 2019]
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Chromolaena odorata
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DAISY FAMILY
Asteraceae
COMMON NAMES
English: chromolaena, devil weed, paraffin bush, Siam weed, triffid weed, turpentine weed
Cambodia: tuntrien khaet
Indonesia: kerinyu, tekelan
Lao PDR: nya khi law
Myanmar: kone-be-da, ne-da-ban, zama-ni
Philippines: dalayday, gonoy, hagonoy, talpus-palad
Thailand: saap suea
Viet Nam: co lào
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen shrub, which may take the form of a scrambler when growing among trees (3–7 m high), often forming dense thickets; stems yellowish-green and somewhat hairy, woody towards the base with wide-spreading branches; deep taproot.
Leaves: Light green, hairy, simple, triangular (5–12 cm long and 3–7 cm wide), pointed, margins toothed, three conspicuous veins from the base; leaves held opposite each other on stem, smell strongly of turpentine when crushed.
Flowers: Mauve, in cylindrical heads (about 10 mm long and 3 mm wide) clustered at the ends of stems.
Fruits: Achene (small, dry, one-seeded fruit that doesn’t open at maturity), straw-coloured, bristly (4–5 mm long).
ORIGIN
Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, USA, Venezuela and the Caribbean.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, wastelands, urban open space, fallow land, plantation crops, managed pastures, drainage ditches, forest edges/gaps, savannah, natural pasture, riparian vegetation, lowlands
and floodplains.
IMPACTS
One mature plant can produce approximately one million seeds per year. Its ability to form dense impenetrable thickets leads to the displacement of native plant species and the dry stems and leaves, which are rich in oils, also increase fire intensities (McFadyen, 2004) contributing to additional biodiversity loss. In South Africa, infestations have a negative impact on the breeding biology of the Nile crocodile (Leslie and Spotila, 2001), while in Cameroon, it displaces native species in the family Zingiberaceae, a major food source for the endangered western lowland gorilla (van der Hoeven and Prins, 2007). In Southeast Asia, it is also a serious weed of oil palm, rubber, coffee, cashew, fruit and forestry (Waterhouse, 1993). In fact ‘some agricultural areas in Southeast Asia have been abandoned because Siam weed has taken over pasture and crops’ (CRC for Weed Management, 2003). It also causes serious health problems in livestock and people (Soerohaldoko, 1971; Sajise et al., 1974) and significantly reduces livestock-carrying capacities.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 10 October 2018
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Cichla ocellaris
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS
Source: |
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Cichlasoma urophthalmus
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS
SOURCE |
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Cipangopaludina chinensis
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Cipangopaludina chinensis. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Cipangopaludina+chinensis on 26 January 2021. |
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Clidemia hirta
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TIBOUCHINA FAMILY
Melastomataceae
COMMON NAMES
English: Koster’s curse, soap bush
Indonesia: harendong bulu
Viet Nam: co saphony
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen shrub [0.5–3 (–5) m tall], branchlets rounded, covered with large reddish-brown hairs/bristles.
Leaves: Light green, upper surfaces with a few hairs, lower surfaces more densely hairy, simple, oval or egg-shaped (5–18 cm long and 3–8 cm wide) with pointed tips, 5–7 prominent veins from the base running almost parallel; margins finely toothed, leaves appear wrinkled or pleated, leaves held opposite each other on stem.
Flowers: White or sometimes pale pink, in clusters in the leaf forks or tips of branches, on a short flower stalk (0.5–1 mm long); base of flower is swollen into a cup-shaped structure.
Fruits: Berries (fleshy fruits that don’t open at maturity), dark blue, purplish or blackish, globular (4–9 mm across), covered in hairs/bristles; seeds are light brown (0.5–0.75 mm long).
ORIGIN
Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru and the Caribbean.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, plantations, pasture, forests, forest edges/gaps, woodlands, woodland edges/gaps and riversides.
IMPACTS
This invasive plant has the ability to form dense stands displacing native plant species. Smith (1985) characterized the impacts of C.hirta as ‘devastating’ in Hawaii, where it threatens the extinction of endemic species. In Tanzania, it suppresses native herbs (Pocs, 1989), while in Fiji, it renders grazing land useless and retards the development of rubber and cocoa plantations. In Southeast Asia, it invades orchards and rubber and oil palm plantations where it reduces yields and increases management costs (Waterhouse, 1993). It came to be known as ‘Koster’s curse’ after being accidentally introduced to Fiji by Koster and its subsequent impacts
(curse) on plantation crops. It is also toxic to livestock (Francis, 2004).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 11 October 2018
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Coccinea grandis
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GOURD FAMILY
Cucurbitaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: ivy gourd, kovai fruit, little gourd, scarlet gourd, tindora
Cambodia: slok bahs, voer bahs
Indonesia: timun kecil, timun jepang
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen, herbaceous vine (9–28 m long) with hairless stems, extensive tuberous root system and axillary tendrils.
Leaves: Green, hairless above and hairy below, simple, eggshaped with broad and rounded base tapering towards the end or heart-shaped (5–9 cm long and 4–9 cm wide), sometimes with 3–7 shallow to deep lobes, margins finely to minutely toothed, held alternately on stem, leaf stalks 1–3 cm long.
Flowers: White, large, star-shaped with five petals.
Fruits: Berries (fleshy fruits that don’t open at maturity), green
turning bright red as they mature, smooth, egg-or oval-shaped (25–60 mm long and 14–35 mm wide); stalks are 10–40 mm long.
ORIGIN
Central African Republic, Chad, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana,Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal,Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo and Uganda.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Food and ornament
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, gardens, cropland, plantations, forests, forest edges/gaps and riparian vegetation.
IMPACTS
Very aggressive and can smother and kill other vegetation, including large trees. In Hawaii, it smothers trees and understorey vegetation (Muniappan et al., 2009). It has the potential to invade dry forest areas on Maui and out-compete rare native plants (Starr et al., 2003a). According to Medeiros et al. (1993) C. grandis ‘would not only trigger the decline of much of the remaining biota but also transform the visual landscape to even the most casual of observers’. C. grandis is ‘an aggressive alien vine that tends to out-compete all other plants’ (Starr and Martz, 2000). It can also cover fences, power lines and other infrastructure causing economic damage. In the last two decades, C. grandis has emerged as an invasive weed in the islands of Guam and Saipan, where it is a problem plant both in managed gardens and natural areas (PIER, 2005). It is also a host for a number of crop pests in the family Cucurbitaceae including Diaphania indica (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), Aulacophora spp. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) (Diptera: Tephritidae), Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae), Liriomyza spp. (Diptera: Agromyzidae), Leptoglossus australis (Fabricius) (Hemiptera: Coreidae) and Bemisia spp. (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 11 October 2018
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Columba livia
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Columba livia. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Columba+livia |
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Corvus splendens
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS
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Cyprinus carpio
|
FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Cyprinus carpio. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Cyprinus+carpio on 12 January 2021. |
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Didemnum spp.
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Didemnum spp..Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Didemnum+spp. on 25 January 2021. |
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Duranta erecta
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VERBENA FAMILY
Verbenaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: Brazilian skyflower, forget-me-not tree, golden dew drop, golden tears
Indonesia: sinyo nakal
Viet Nam: thanh quan
DESCRIPTION
Usually evergreen, multi-stemmed, shrub or small tree [2–4 (–7) m high]; sometimes scrambling, branches with a drooping habit; sometimes with spines in the leaf stalks; branches four-angled.
Leaves: Dark to light green, sparsely hairy to hairless, simple, oval to egg-shaped (15–90 mm long and 12–60 mm wide), margins usually entire but sometimes toothed towards the leaf tips, held opposite each other on stem or occasionally in whorls of three.
Flowers: Lilac, light blue, pale purple or white, tubular-shaped (9–18 mm long), in elongated clusters or sprays up to 30 cm long at the ends of branches.
Fruits: Berries (fleshy fruits that don’t open at maturity), initially green turning orange-yellow as they mature, round or almost round (5–14 mm wide), shiny, with a curved beak at one end, borne in large clusters.
ORIGIN
Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Southern USA, Venezuela and the Caribbean.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Hedge/barrier and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed areas, plantations, forest edges/gaps, woodland edges/gaps and riparian vegetation.
IMPACTS
D. erecta has the ability to form dense stands displacing native plants, and the organisms associated with them. It is allelopathic and also has the ability to climb into woodland or forest canopies. Its toxicity has been known for over 100 years when the ingestion of fruit was inferred to have killed a two-year-old boy in Queensland, Australia, in the late 19th century (Wheeler, 1895). It has also caused the death of numerous pets (Scanlan et al., 2006) and poisoned cattle (Sutherland, 1953).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 12 October 2018
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Eichhornia crassipes
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PICKEREL WEED FAMILY
Pontederiaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: lilac devil, Nile lily, pickerelweed, water hyacinth, water orchid
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen, free-floating, aquatic plant that may become anchored in shallow water; [10–20 (–100) cm high]; roots are long and feathery; runners (10 cm long) are produced across the water surface and give rise to new plants.
Leaves: Dark green, shiny, hairless, simple, oval to egg-shaped to almost rounded (2–25 cm long and 2–15 cm wide) with swollen bladder-like stems (30 cm long).
Flowers: Pale violet or blue (4–6 cm long and 3.5–5 cm wide), upper petal of each flower has a prominent yellow-centred patch; flowers in clusters of 8–10.
Fruits: Capsules (a dry fruit that opens at maturity) (10–15 mm long), containing very fine seeds.
ORIGIN
Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname and Venezuela
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Irrigation channels, dams, ponds, floodplains, swamps, wetlands, lakes and slow-moving rivers.
IMPACTS
This aquatic weed has the ability to form thick mats which hamper water transport; inhibit or even prevent fishing-related activities; block waterways and canals; hamper hydroelectricity generation; and provide breeding sites for vectors of human and animal diseases, increasing the incidence of malaria, encephalitis, schistosomiasis, filariasis, river blindness and possibly cholera (Burton, 1960; Spira et al., 1981; Gopal, 1987; Viswam et al., 1989). The thick mats reduce light penetration into the water, causing declines in the concentrations of phytoplankton that support the zooplankton–fish food chain. Extensive mats of water hyacinth increase water loss through evapotranspiration, and impact rice production (Waterhouse, 1993). In southern Benin, an infestation of water hyacinth reduced the annual income of 200,000 people by about US $84 million (de Groote et al., 2003). Lost revenues for men were mostly fishing-related, while women experienced lost revenues in trade, primarily of food crops and fish.
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/
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Gallus varius
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Gallus varius. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Gallus+varius on 25 January 2021. |
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Gambusia affinis
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Gambusia affinis. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Gambusia+affinis on 20 January 2021 |
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Gambusia holbrooki
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Gambusia holbrooki. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Gambusia+holbrooki on 27 January 2021. |
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Gracilaria salicornia
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SYSTEM
Marine
COMMON NAMES
English: red alga
Philippines: canot-canot; caocaoayan
DESCRIPTION
Gracilaria salicornia varies in colour from a bright yellow at the tips to orange, green or brown at the base. The thallus is cylindrical (0.5cm in diameter) and dichotomously branched with constrictions at the base of each dichotomy. In Hawai’i it generally grows in three-dimensional mats that are tightly adherent to hard substrata and can be up to 25-40cm in thickness; in calm environments it may grow in an upright and more openly branching form (Smith Pers. Comm. 2003).
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam
World: Australia, Fiji, India, Iran, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Oman, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, United States, Yemen, China, Guam, Japan, Kuwait, Micronesia, Northern Mariana Islands, Pakistan, Reunion, South Africa, Taiwan
PATHWAY
Transport – Ship/boat ballast water; Ship/boat hull fouling
Intentional release
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Gracilaria salicornia was introduced intentionally to two reefs on O'ahu, Hawai'i, in the 1970s for experimental aquaculture for the agar industry (Smith et al. 2004).A likely vector of transport of invasive marine algae is through ship fouling and/or ballast water. In Hawaii many alien algae were first collected in or around harbors and gradually dispersed to neighbouring areas (Smith Hunter and Smith 2002).
IMPACTS
In tropical regions, blooms of indigenous algae (such as Gracilaria salicornia) have often been tied to reductions in grazing intensity and increases in anthropogenically derived nutrient levels (Miller et al. 1999, McClanahan et al. 2001, McCook et al. 2001, Smith et al. 2001, Stimson et al. 2001, Thacker et al. 2001, in Smith Hunter and Smith 2002). G. salicornia is likely to damage native coral environments by over-growing native benthic organisms such as algae and marine invertebrates. Because of its large morphological stature and the dense mats it forms (5 to 10cm thick), G. salicornia can have large effects on benthic ecology by monopolising stratum (Smith et al. 2004). In many cases, red alga becomes ecologically dominant and grows over coral reefs. For example, in areas of Hawaii such as Waikiki G. salicornia has become the single-most dominant benthic species in an area that before invasion was home to over 60 species of macroalgae (Doty 1969, in Smith et al. 2004. The long-term consequences of phase shifts from coral to algal dominance may include the loss of biodiversity, a decrease in the intrinsic value of the reef, changes in the community structure (eg: a reduction in the numbers of reef fish dependent upon corals for habitat and shelter), and erosion of the reef (Hughes 1994, in Smith Hunter and Smith 2002).
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) 2015. Species profile Gracilaria salicornia. Available from: http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1026 [Accessed 09 September 2019]
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Gracilaria vermiculophylla
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SYSTEM
Marine
DESCRIPTION
Gracilaria vermiculophylla is a red macroalga that is cartilaginous, cylindrical and up to 50 cm long. It is coarsely branched, often profusely so. G. vermiculophylla can be found as loose-lying thalli or attached to small stones or shells. Red algae are often found in the vegetative state, and characterisation of reproductive structures is often necessary for correct identification of Gracilaria species (AlgaeBase 2010; Liao & Hommersand 2003; Nyberg et al. 2009; Rueness 2005).
NATIVE RANGE
ASEAN: Viet Nam
World: China, Japan, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN:
World: Atlantic-Northeast, Canada, Europe, Germany, Mexico, Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden, Atlantic-Northwest, Denmark, France, Italy, Morocco, Pacific-Northeast, Spain, United States
PATHWAY
Transport – Ship/boat ballast water Fisheries
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Spread is likely to occur on vectors such as fishing and leisure boats (Nyberg 2007 in Nyberg et al. 2009).Fishing gear (Nyberg et al. 2009).
IMPACTS
Gracilaria vermiculophylla inhibits the growth and survival of native algae through competition (Council of Europe 2009; Hamman et al. n.d.). G. vermiculophylla is reported to be a problem in fishing industries through fouling of nets (Freshwater et al. 2000).
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) 2015. Species profile Gracilaria vermiculophylla. Available from: http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1698 [Accessed 09 September 2019]
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Gymnodinium catenatum
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SYSTEM
Marine
COMMON NAMES
English: naked dinoflagellate, estuarine dinoflagellate, chain-forming dinoflagellate
DESCRIPTION
Gymnodinium catenatum is a toxic, bloom forming species of microalgae. It is usually seen in long, swimming chains of tiny cells, with up to 32 cells in a chain (occasionally 64). It is also seen as solitary cells with a green-brown colour. The size of these cells ranges from 38 - 53 um long and 33 - 45 um wide. The cells are circular to squarish in shape, with many rounded organelles within them. Cysts of G. catenatum are brown, spherical and range in size from 45 - 50 um in diameter.
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN: Philippines, Singapore
WORLD: Argentina, Baha De La Paz, China, Cuba, Iberian Coastal, Japan, Korea, Republic Of, Mexico, Pacific-Eastern Central, Portugal, Spain, Venezuela, Australia, Brazil, Costa Rica, Hong Kong, Italy, Korea Democratic People’s Republic Of, Mediterranean and Black Sea, New Zealand, Uruguay
PATHWAY
Transport – Ship/boat Ballast Water
Aquaculture and Fisheries
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ballast water can transport this organism long distances to new environments. Cysts of G. catenatum can be accidentally translocated through aquaculture and fisheries activities, such as in oyster cages or on mussel ropes.
IMPACTS
Toxins (saxitoxins and gonyautoxins) produced by Gymnodinium catenatum can cause Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP). Mussels, oysters and scallops from areas affected by G. catenatum blooms have been highly contaminated with paralytic shellfish toxins, resulting in human poisonings (NIMPIS, 2002c).
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) 2015. Species profile Gymnodinium catenatum. Available from: http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=645 [Accessed 09 September 2019]
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Hedychium coronarium
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GINGER FAMILY
Zingiberaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: butterfly ginger, garland flower, garland lily, ginger lily, white butterfly ginger lily, white ginger, white ginger-lily, wild ginger
Indonesia: gondasuli, gandasoli, mandasuli
Malaysia: gandasuli, suli
Philippines: kamia, jing hua
Thailand: hanghong, hun kaeo, mahaahong, tha haan
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen herbaceous plant [1–2.5 (–2.5) m tall] which produces a thick mat of creeping underground stems (2.5–5 cm across) close to the soil surface, stems are reddish at base and covered by leaf sheaths (tubular structure that clasp stem).
Leaves: Green, glossy, smooth, hairless, simple, sword-shaped or somewhat elongated with almost parallel sides narrowed to a slender point (50–60 cm long and 10–15 cm wide), margins entire with
prominent midvein; leaves held alternately on stem.
Flowers: White, at the tip of each unbranched stem, showy, fragrant.
Fruits: Capsule (a dry fruit that opens at maturity), orange-yellow, dry, smooth, somewhat elongated with almost parallel sides (2.5–3.5 cm long) containing many seeds (6 mm long and 4 mm wide).
ORIGIN
China, India, Myanmar, Nepal and Taiwan.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed areas, plantations, drainage ditches, irrigation channels, dam edges, ponds, forests, forest edges/gaps, riparian vegetation, lowlands, floodplains, swamps, wetlands, lake and river edges.
IMPACTS
Forms extensive thickets which disrupt water flow in channels and displace and suppress the regeneration of native wetland plants. In Brazil, dense infestations have caused the localized extinction of Peripatus acacioi Marcus and Marcus (Onychophora), a rare invertebrate, in a nature reserve established to protect it (Soares and Barreto, 2008). White ginger is a threat to Clermontia samuelii Forbes (Campanulaceae) and Labordia tinifolia A. Gray var. lanaiensis Sherff. (Loganiaceae), two endemic plant species on the Maui Nui group of islands in the Hawaiian Islands (USFWS, 1999). In St Lucia it may be replacing the rare indigenous orchid Habenaria monorrhiza [Sw] Rchb.f (Orchidaceae) (Krauss, 2012). The plant is also toxic.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/
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Hedychium gardnerianum
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GINGER FAMILY
Zingiberaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: kahili garland lily, kahili ginger, red ginger lily, wild ginger
Viet Nam: gung dai
DESCRIPTION
Robust, evergreen, with creeping underground stems or rhizomes [1–2 (–2.5) m high], branching surface rhizomes that can form dense mats up to 1 m thick.
Leaves: Bright green or greyish-green, glossy, upper surface hairless, lower surface sparsely hairy, narrow, tapering with pointed tips (20–45 cm long and 10–15 cm wide), margins entire; leaves held alternately on stem with a long base that sheaths the stem.
Flowers: Yellow in large clusters (15–45 cm long and 15–20 cm wide) at tips of stems; each flower has a slender red tube.
Fruits: Capsules (dry fruits that open at maturity), thin-walled (about 1.5 cm long) with three compartments.
ORIGIN
Bhutan, India and Nepal.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Medicine and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed areas, plantations, forests, forest edges/gaps, riverbanks and damp areas.
IMPACTS
Forms dense stands out-competing native species for light, space, nutrients and moisture, and its shade tolerance makes it able to thrive in forests. The thick rhizome mats also prevent the establishment of other species. Populations are now found on all islands in Hawaii (Smith, 1985). Its aggressive growth and shade tolerance means that it can form dense thickets in the understorey of open and closed-canopy Metrosideros polymorpha Gaud. (Myrtaceae) rainforests as well as in open habitats and forest edges around the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (Anderson and Gardner, 1999). It threatens primary forest remnants in La Réunion and continuous expansion of large stands may endanger endemic lichens, vascular plants, molluscs and arthropods in the Azores. Infestations on Sao Miguel Island also threaten the Azores bullfinch. During rains, large infestations growing on steep slopes often become heavy with absorbed water and slip down slopes, contributing to erosion and gully formation.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/
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Hemidactylus frenatus
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Hemidactylus frenatus. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Hemidactylus+frenatus on 18 January 2021. |
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Herpestes javanicus
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Herpestes javanicus. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Herpestes+javanicus on 07 Februsry 2021. |
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Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Hypophthalmichthys molitrix. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Hypophthalmichthys+molitrix on 21 January 2021. |
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Hypophthalmichthys nobilis
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Hypophthalmichthys nobilis. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Hypophthalmichthys+nobilis on 21 January 2021. |
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Jatropha gossypiifolia
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SPURGE FAMILY
Euphorbiaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: American purging nut, bellyache bush, red fig-nut flower, red physic nut, wild cassava.
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen, erect shrub [1–3 (4) m tall]; older stems are thick and succulent-like; young branches are purplish and hairy; young shoots exude a brownish latex when damaged.
Leaves: Reddish-brown to dark bronze or purplish turning bright green with age, hairless, simple (4.5–10 cm long and 5–13 cm wide), usually with 3 or 5 deep lobes, 3–5 veins from the base, margins glandular and minutely toothed; leaf stalks are 6–9 cm long and covered in sticky hairs.
Flowers: Five dark red or deep purple petals with yellow centre, borne in branched clusters (8–15 cm long) at the tips of branches.
Fruits: Capsules (dry fruits that open at maturity), glossy green turning brown as they mature, three-lobed, slightly hairy, somewhat elongated with almost parallel sides to almost round (about 12 mm long and 10 mm wide), containing three large light brown seeds.
ORIGIN
Antigua and Barbuda, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominica, Ecuador, Guadeloupe, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia and Venezuela.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Medicine, natural oils, hedge/barrier and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed areas, urban open space, drainage ditches, savannah, lowlands, gullies and dry riverbeds.
IMPACTS
This weed forms dense thickets, especially in riparian areas where it readily displaces native plant species and prevents their regeneration. It also significantly reduces livestock carrying capacities outcompeting valuable forage species. Although the plant is not consumed by livestock, accidental ingestion does occur. In 1995, in northern Queensland, Australia, 312 head of livestock died (290 cattle, 7 horses and 15 goats) after accidentally consuming the plant during a drought (Csurhes, 1999).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 12 October 2018
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Lantana camara
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VERBENA FAMILY
Verbenaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: curse of India, lantana, Spanish flag, tickberry, prickly lantana, white sage
Cambodia: phka chenh chien, phka kang, phka arch meann
Indonesia: kembang telek, tembelekan, tahi ayam
Lao PDR: dok mai khiu
Myanmar: sein-na-ban
Philippines: asin-asin, bahu-bahu, sapinit, sapor, sari-sari, sibsibit
Thailand: pagaknong
Viet Nam: bông oi, cây ngu sac
DESCRIPTION
Compact, untidy long-lived shrub/scrambler (up to 2 m or higher), forming dense thickets; stems are usually green turning grey or brown with age, square in cross-section with short hairs and hooked/recurved prickles/thorns.
Leaves: Dark green, rough hairy, simple, egg-shaped (2–13 cm long and 1.5–7 cm wide) with pointed tips, margins toothed/rough, wrinkled appearance, held opposite each other on stems, smell strongly when crushed.
Flowers: Small red, pink, crimson, orange, yellow or white flowers borne in dense clusters (2–4 cm across), with each cluster containing about 20–40 flowers; clusters on stalks (2–10 cm long); individual flowers are
tubular (9–14 mm long and 4–10 mm across).
Fruits: Berries (fleshy fruits that don’t open at maturity), initially shiny green turning purplish-black when mature (5–8 mm across), one-seeded.
ORIGIN
Bahamas, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Mexico and Venezuela.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Hedging/barrier and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, railways, disturbed land, wasteland, plantations, managed pasture, drainage ditches, forest edges/gaps, woodland edges/gaps, grassland, savannah, water courses, lowlands and gullies.
IMPACTS
Lantana forms dense impenetrable thickets reducing biodiversity and threatening the continued existence of a host of rare and endangered species. Turner and Downey (2010) identified 275 plant and 24 native animal species in Australia that are threatened by the presence of lantana. In crop production systems in Southeast Asia, it reduces yields and increases management costs for those growing durian, pineapple, banana and rubber (Waterhouse, 1993). It is also toxic to livestock with pastoral losses in Queensland in 1985, estimated to be A$ 7.7 million, as a result of 1,500 animal deaths, reductions in productivity, loss of pasture and control costs (van Oosterhout, 2004). In South Africa, lantana poisoning accounts for about 25% of all reported livestock poisoning by plants (Wells and Stirton, 1988). There have also been some recorded fatalities in people, after consumption of the green fruit. Lantana can also alter fire regimes, allowing fires to penetrate into forests and woodlands.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 23 October 2018
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Leucaena leucocephala
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PEA FAMILY
Fabaceae; Sub-family: Mimosaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: jumbie bean, lead tree, leucaena, wild tamarind
Cambodia: khtum tehs, krathum thet
Indonesia: petai cina
Lao PDR: kathin;kh’oonz, koong khaaw
Malaysia: lamtoro, petai belalang
Philippines: bayani, komkompitis, loyloy, palomaria
Thailand: kra thin, to-bao
Viet Nam: cây keo dau
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen thornless shrub or small tree [2–10 (15) m high]; young stems green and densely covered in greyish-coloured hairs.
Bark: Smooth, greyish-brown with numerous small raised spots.
Leaves: Dark green, twice-divided [0.7–15 (–35) cm long] with small raised structure (gland) usually on leaf stalk, 3–10 pairs of leaf branchlets, each 2–10 cm long and each bearing 5–22 pairs of leaflets that are somewhat elongated, almost parallel sided or swordshaped (7–21 mm long and 1.5–5 mm wide).
Flowers: White or pale yellow in globular clusters (12–30 mm across), borne singly or in groups of 2–3 located at the juncture of the leaf and stem.
Fruits: Pods (several-seeded dry fruits that split open at maturity), green turning brown or reddish brown as they mature, elongated, almost straight (8–18 cm long and 2 cm wide), flattened but raised over the seeds, pointed tips; containing 10–25 hard seeds.
ORIGIN
Belize, Guatemala and Mexico.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Fuelwood, fodder, tannins, nitrogen fixation, soil conservation, shade and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, urban open space, drainage ditches, forest edges/gaps, woodland edges/gaps, riparian vegetation, lowlands and coastal shrub.
IMPACTS
Forms large monocultures displacing native plant and animal species. In Hawaii, it is outcompeting open forest species (Cronk and Fuller, 1995), while on the Brazilian island of Fernando de Noronha, it impacts endemic flora. The invasion of leucaena has had a severe effect on the native plant community in the Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands, Japan, and may alter secondary succession, promoting the invasion and establishment of more aggressive alien plant species (Yoshida and Oka, 2004). In Guam, leucaena is preventing the establishment of indigenous species (B. Lawrence, pers. comm., in Walton, 2003). In Vanuatu, it can form dense monospecific thickets, threatening native plant species and is ‘very difficult to eradicate once established, rendering extensive areas unusable and inaccessible’ (Bakeo and Qarani, 2005). In the Erap Valley of Papua New Guinea, it forms monospecific stands in river valleys, replacing native riparian vegetation (G. Werren, pers. comm., in Walton, 2003).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 23 October 2018
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Limnocharis flava
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WATER POPPY FAMILY
Limnocharitaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: bur head, limnocharis, sawah lettuce, velvetleaf, yellow burrhead
Cambodia: trakiet paong
Indonesia: bangeng, eceng, enceng, berek, gunda, genjer
Lao PDR: kaanz choong
Malaysia: jinjir, paku rawan
Thailand: bon cheen, bonchin, nangkwak, talapatrusi, taalapat ruesee
Viet Nam: cây cù nèo, kèo nèo
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen clump-forming, aquatic, herbaceous, rooted to the ground and emerges above the water surface (20–120 cm tall); large fleshy leaves borne in clusters along a short thick erect stem (about 3 cm long and 3 cm wide), contains a milky sap.
Leaves: Green, hairless, simple, triangular to rounded (5–30 cm long and 4–25 cm wide), margins entire or wavy, borne on long three-angled (triangular) stalks (5–90 cm long).
Flowers: Yellow, in clusters containing 2–15 flowers at the top of three-angled stalks (20–120 cm long).
Fruits: Rounded ‘capsules’ (15–20 mm across), that split up into several floating segments when mature.
ORIGIN
Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Grenada, Haiti, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Drainage ditches, irrigation channels, dams, ponds, water courses, floodplains, swamps, wetlands and slow-moving rivers.
IMPACTS
Dominates invaded water bodies displacing other aquatic plant and animal species. It has become a serious weed in rice paddies and chokes irrigation and drainage canals (Waterhouse, 2003) facilitating siltation and reducing water discharge capacity (Kotalawala, 1976). In some cases, infestations are so severe leading to the abandonment of rice fields. Invaded areas also provide ideal breeding grounds for disease vectors such as mosquitoes, contributing to the spread of diseases such as Japanese encephalitis and dengue fever (Abhilash et al., 2008).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 23 October 2018
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Lithobates catesbeianus
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Lithobates catesbeianus. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Lithobates+catesbeianus on 21-01-2021. |
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Lutjanus kasmira
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
IMPACTS Source:Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Lutjanus kasmira. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Lutjanus+kasmira on 25 January 2021. |
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Macaca fascicularis
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Macaca fascicularis. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Macaca+fascicularis on 21 January 2021. |
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Maconellicoccus hirsutus
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Maconellicoccus hirsutus. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Maconellicoccus+hirsutus on 25 Janaury 2021. |
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Merremia peltata
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MORNING GLORY FAMILY
Convolvulaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: merremia
Indonesia: mantangan
Malaysia: akar sambaing
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen robust vine or climber, with large subterranean tubers; stems smooth (up to 30 m high) emitting a milky latex when damaged.
Leaves: Green, hairless above, purple veins below with scattered hairs, simple, almost round but abruptly tapering to a sharp point (7.5–30 cm long and 7–20 cm wide), held alternately on stems, leaf stalk attached to the underside of the leaf blade instead of at its base or margin (3–24 cm long).
Flowers: Usually white, funnel-shaped, large (5–6 cm wide), in clusters on stalks (15–30 cm long).
Fruits: Capsule (dry fruit that opens at maturity) (15 mm long), splitting into many valves; seeds brown.
ORIGIN
Uncertain but assumed to be native to Pemba, Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Seychelles, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, northern Australia and eastwards into Polynesia to the Society Islands. Different biotype may be invasive in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park in Indonesia.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Medicine, land restoration and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, wasteland, urban open space, fallow land, plantations, forest edges/gaps and woodland edges/gaps.
IMPACTS
Smothers native vegetation to the detriment of plant and animal life. In Vanuatu, it is considered to be one of the most important weeds of plantation forestry and is one of two major specie sthreatening natural regeneration in logged or disturbed areas (Bakeo and Qarani, 2005). In Indonesia, it also inhibits and/or prevents the movement of threatened and rare species such as elephants, rhinos and tigers.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 23 October 2018
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Miconia calvescens
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TIBOUCHINA FAMILY
Melastomataceae
COMMON NAMES
English: bush currant, miconia, purple plague, velvet tree
Viet Nam: cây micona
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen shrub or small tree [4–8 (–16) m tall]; young stems are green, four-angled and covered in tiny star-shaped hairs; stems become brown and rounded with age.
Leaves: Dark green above and bright purple below, hairless, simple, oval with pointed tips [17–40 (–100) cm long and 7–25 cm wide], margins entire or finely toothed, three-veined from base to tip of leaf; leaf stalks are 2–6 cm long.
Flowers: White or pinkish, small, held in large clusters (20–50 cm long) at end of branches.
Fruits: Berries (fleshy fruits that don’t open at maturity), green turning bluish black or dark purple as they mature (about 6 mm across), containing 140–230 seeds.
ORIGIN
Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay and Peru.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament and in contaminated soil.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, plantations, forest edges/gaps, woodland edges/gaps, plantations, riverbanks and coastal areas.
IMPACTS
Areas invaded become totally transformed due to the creation of deep shade which few native species can tolerate (Meyer, 1994). This weed now covers over two-thirds of the island of Tahiti, forming dense monotypic stands, that have overwhelmed the native forests, where between 40 and 50 of the 107 species endemic to Tahiti are thought to be on the verge of extinction (Meyer and Florence, 1996). Between 70 and 100 native plant species, including 40–50 species endemic to French Polynesia, are estimated to be directly threatened by M. calvescens with significant knock-on impacts on endemic birds and other organisms (Meyer and Florence, 1996). The lack of ground cover under infestations also contributes to higher rates of soil erosion. Impacts have let to infestations being termed the ‘green cancer’ of Tahiti and the ‘purple plague’ of Hawaii.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 23 October 2018
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Micropterus salmoides
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Micropterus salmoides. Downloaded- from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Micropterus+salmoides on 26 January 2021. |
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Mikania micrantha
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DAISY FAMILY
Asteraceae
COMMON NAMES
English: American rope, bitter vine, Chinese creeper, climbing hemp vine, mile-a-minute weed
Cambodia: voer tun trean khaet
Indonesia: caputuheun, mikania, sembung rambat
Malaysia: cheroma, ulam tikus
Viet Nam: cây cúc leo
DESCRIPTION
A branched, scrambling, slender-stemmed, fast-growing, evergreen vine; stem slightly ribbed lengthwise, hairless or slightly hairy.
Leaves: Green, hairless, simple, heart-shaped or triangular with a pointed tip and a broad base (4–13cm long and 2–9 cm wide), 3–5 veined from base, margins are coarsely toothed; leaves held in opposite pairs along the stems with leaf stalks 2–8 cm long.
Flowers: Fluffy white to greenish-white, often with purple tinge (3–6 mm long), in dense clusters in the forks of the leaves or at the ends of the branches.
Fruits: Achenes (small, dry, one-seeded fruits that don’t open at maturity), black, linear to elongated with almost parallel sides, five-angled (1.2–2 mm long).
ORIGIN
Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba,Dominica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Martinique, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, St. Lucia, Suriname and Venezuela.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Roadsides, wastelands, disturbed land, crops, plantations, managed pasture, forest edges/gaps, woodland edges/gaps, riversides and wetlands.
IMPACTS
Rapidly smothers native plants and crops. It is considered to be one of the worst weeds of plantation crops in India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Malaysia. In Southeast Asia, it affects yields of cocoa, coconut, orchards, rubber, oil palm, vegetables and rice (Waterhouse, 1993). The annual cost of controlling M. micrantha was estimated at US $9.8 million for rubber, oil palm and cocoa crops in Malaysia (Teoh et al., 1985). In Samoa, it has led to the abandonement of coconut plantations where it is also known tohave killed large breadfruit trees. In Papua New Guinea, about 45% of all respondents estimated that M. micrantha causes yield losses in excess of 30% (Day et al., 2012). In summer, the dried aerial parts are also a fire hazard allowiing fires to penetrate deeper into forests and other natural vegetation.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 23 October 2018
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Mimosa diplotricha
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PEA FAMILY
Fabaceae; subfamily: Mimosaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: creeping sensitive plant, nila grass, tropical blackberry
Cambodia: preah khlab damrei
Indonesia: jukut boring, putri malu, simeduri-dura
Lao PDR: nya nahm
Myanmar: tee-ka-yone-gyi
Philippines: aroma, hibi-hibi, kamit-kabag, makahiyang lalake
Thailand: maiyaraap luei
Viet Nam: trinh nu móc
DESCRIPTION
Annual, biennial (living for longer than one year but less than two) or evergreen, scrambling, climbing, strongly branched shrub, forming dense thickets [2–3 (–6) m tall], woody at the base with age; stems green or purplish tinged, 4–5-angled in cross-section, covered with sharp, recurved, yellowish spines (3–6 mm long).
Leaves: Bright-green, twice-divided (10–20 cm long), 4–9 pairs of leaflet branchlets each with 12–30 pairs of small elongated leaflets (6–12 mm long and 1.5 mm wide) with pointed tips, leaves fold together at night or when touched.
Flowers: Pinkish-violet or purplish, round heads (12 mm across), borne singly or in small groups on hairy stalks (3.5–16 mm long).
Fruits: Pods (several-seeded dry fruits that split open at maturity), green turning brown as they mature, flat, softly spiny on edges, elongated (8–35 mm long and 3–10 mm wide); occur in clusters which break into oneseeded joints; seeds are light brown (1.9 mm long and 2.7 mm wide).
ORIGIN
Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico and Venezuela.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Erosion control, nitrogen fixation, forage for bees, hedge/barrier and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed areas, wastelands, urban open space, crops, plantations, managed pasture, drainage ditches, woodland edges/gaps, forest edges/gaps, woodland edges/gaps, savannah, lowlands, wetlands and gullies.
IMPACTS
Smothers other plants and prevents their natural regeneration. Dense stands also prevent or inhibit the movement of livestock and wildlife. In Nigeria, when M. diplotricha density reached 630,000 plants per hectare, cassava root yield, 12 months after planting, was reduced by 80% (Alabi et al., 2001). It readily invades orchards and rice paddies reducing yields and increasing management costs (Waterhouse, 1993). On cattle ranches in Papua New Guinea, up to US$ 130,000 is spent annually on chemical control (Kuniata, 1994). In Thailand, 22 swamp buffaloes died 18–36 hours after eating M. diplotricha (Tungtrakanpoung and Rhienpanish, 1992). Trials in Queensland, Australia, indicated toxicity to sheep, and a report from Flores, Indonesia, suggests that it is toxic to pigs (Parsons and Cuthbertson, 1992).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 23 October 2018
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Mimosa pigra
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PEA FAMILY
Fabaceae; Sub-family: Mimosaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: bashful bush, black mimosa, giant mimosa, giant sensitive plant
Cambodia: banla uyyas, banla yuon, deoum klab yeik; Indonesia: ki kerbau, putri malu
Malaysia: kembang gajah, semalu gajah
Thailand: maiyaraap ton, mai yah raap yak
Viet Nam: trinh nu thân go, trinh nu dam lay
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen shrub or small tree (3–6 m high), forming dense thickets, young stems green, rounded, armed with scattered prickles (5–12 mm long), taproot is 1–2 m deep.
Bark: Older stems grey and woody.
Leaves: Yellowish-green, with short fine hairs below, twice-divided (20–31 cm long), straight thorn at the junction of each of the 6–16 pairs of leaflet branchlets, each branchlet with 20–45 pairs of small elongated leaflets (3–12 mm long and 0.5–2 mm wide), leaves fold together at night or when touched.
Flowers: Pink or mauve, in fluffy round heads (1–2 cm wide), borne singly or in groups of two or three, on stalks (2–7 cm long), arising from each upper leaf fork.
Fruits: Pods (several-seeded dry fruits that split open at maturity), green turning brown as they mature, flat and elongated (3–12 cm long and 7–14 mm wide), covered in bristly hairs, borne in clusters (1–30), break transversely into 14–26 segments; seeds greenish-brown to light brown (4–6 mm long and 2–2.5 mm wide).
ORIGIN
Argentina, Belize, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Green manure, nitrogen fixation, medicine, hedge/barrier and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, wastelands, urban open space, drainage ditches, irrigation channels, dams, riversides, floodplains, swamps, wetlands, lake edges and gullies.
IMPACTS
Dense infestations of M. pigra contribute to a decline in abundance and diversity of species of plants and animals. In Tram Chim National Park, Vietnam, it has reduced the density of native plant species threatening the vulnerable sarus crane (Grus antigone L.) (Triet and Dung, 2001). M. pigra thickets in Australia had fewer plants, birds and lizards, than native vegetation (Braithwaite et al., 1989). In Lochinvar National Park, Zambia, infestations reduced bird diversity by almost 50% and abundance by more than 95% (Shanungu, 2009). In Cambodia, farmers ranked mimosa as the most significant problem affecting rice farming, ‘ahead of pests, rodents, and drought problems’ (Chamroeun et al., 2002). M. pigra also hampers fishing activities and prevents access to water bodies.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 23 October 2018
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Mimosa pudica
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PEA FAMILY
Fabaceae; subfamily: Mimosaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: common sensitive plant, shame plant, sleeping grass, touchme-not
Cambodia: preah klab sampeahs, preah khlab, sampeahs
Indonesia: putri malu, sikejut
Lao PDR: nya nyoub
Myanmar: tee-kayone
Philippines: babain, bain-bain, hibi-hibi, torog-torog
Thailand: yaa pan yot
Viet Nam: cây xau ho, co trinh nu
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen prickly herbaceous plant or small shrub, creeping or sprawling [15–50 (–100) cm high]; stems reddish-brown to purplish, round, sparse prickles (2–2.5 mm long).
Leaves: Yellowish-green, sparsely hairy, twice-divided, 1–2 pairs of leaflet branchlets (2.5–8 cm long) each bearing 10–25 pairs of elongated leaflets with almost parallel sides (6–15 mm long and 1–3 mm wide), margins entire, borne on stalks (1.5–6 cm long), leaves fold together at night or when touched.
Flowers: Lilac or pink in fluffy round heads or clusters (9–15 mm across) held on bristly stalks (1–4 cm long).
Fruits: Pods (several-seeded dry fruits that split open at maturity), green turning brown as they mature, elongated with almost parallel sides, flattened (1–2.5 cm long and 3–6 mm wide), held in clusters covered in bristles, prickles along their margins, break transversely into segments; seeds are light brown, flattened (2.5–3 mm long).
ORIGIN
Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Puerto Rico, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago and Venezuela.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Medicine, tannins, forage for bees, ground cover and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, railway lines, disturbed land, wasteland, urban open space, gardens, fallow land, crops, plantations, managed pasture, drainage ditches, savannah, lowlands, wetlands and gullies.
IMPACTS
Is a fire hazard and poses a significant threat to native flora. It is a serious pest of crops and pastures throughout the tropics (Holm et al., 1979). Infestations of M. pudica can lead to a 10–70% reduction in upland rice yields in Kerala, India (Joseph and Bridgit, 1993). It is also considered a serious weed of sugarcane, sorghum, maize, soybean (Holm et al., 1977), tomatoes, pineapples, cotton (Lee Soo Ann, 1976; Waterhouse and Norris, 1987), rubber, tea, coffee, coconut, oil palm, banana, mango, papaya, citrus and even Acacia mangium plantations in Indonesia (Nazif, 1993). Mimosa also invades pasture and can be toxic to livestock. It is suspected of poisoning cattle in Papua New Guinea (Henty and Pritchard, 1975) and has caused stunted growth in chickens in Indonesia (Kostermans et al., 1987).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 23 October 2018
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Misgurnus anguillicaudatus
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
INTRODUCED RANGE
IMPACTS
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Misgurnus+anguillicaudatus on 18 January |
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Musculista senhousia
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SYSTEM
Marine
COMMON NAMES
English: Asian mussel, green mussel, cuckoo mussel, senhouse mussel, hototogisu, Senhouse's mussel, Asian date mussel, Japanese mussel, green bagmussel, date mussel
DESCRIPTION
Musculista senhousia is a small mussel with a maximum length of around 30mm, but most commonly 10-25mm in length and up to 12mm in width. It has a smooth, thin shell which is an olive green to brown in colour, with dark radial lines or zigzag markings. A well developed byssus is used to construct a cocoon which protects the shell. This cocoon is made up of byssal threads and sediment. M. senhousia burrows vertically down into the sand/mud leaving only its posterior end protruding, allowing its siphons access to the water to enable feeding (NIMPIS, 2002; CIESM, 2005).
NATIVE RANGE
ASEAN: Singapore
World: Japan, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN:
WORLD: Australia, China, France, Italy, Mediterranean and Black Sea, New Zealand, Tanzania Republic Of, Canada, Egypt, Israel, Madagascar, Mexico, Slovenia, United States
PATHWAY
Transport – Ship/boat ballast water
Aquaculture
Trading
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Musculista senhousia may have been introduced to Australia as an accidental importation with Pacific oysters (CSIRO, 2000). In the Mediterranean, invasion of M. senhousia has been strictly linked with shellfish arming and trading.The initial invasion of the Pacific coast of the USA is attributed to transport with oysters imported from Japan (Mistri et al. 2004).
IMPACTS
Musculista senhousia can dominate benthic communities and potentially exclude native species. It settles in aggregations and is therefore able to reach high densities. Unlike most mussels, M.senhousia lives entirely within the sediments, surrounded by a bag of byssal threads. At mussel densities of greater than 1500 m2, individual byssal bags coalesce to form a continuous mat or carpet on the sediment surface. The presence of these mats dramatically alters the natural benthic habitat, changing both the local physical environment and the resident macroinvertebrate assemblage. M. senhousia deposits large amounts of organic matter in the sediment, which possibly results in the accumulation of toxic metabolites such as sulfide, which can have adverse effects on seagrass growth (Morton, 1974; Ito and Kajihara, 1981; in Reusch and Williams, 1998).
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) 2015. Species profile Musculista senhousia. Available from: http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1031 [Accessed 09 September 2019]
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Mycale grandis
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Mycale grandis. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Mycale+grandis on 21 January 2021. |
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Myocastor coypus
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Myocastor coypus. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Myocastor+coypus on 27 January 2021. |
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Myriophyllum aquaticum
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WATERMILFOIL FAMILY
Haloragaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: Brazilian water milfoil, parrot’s feather, water feather Indonesia: bulu burung, paris
Viet Nam: rong xuong cá, rong co lông chim
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen, rooted aquatic plant with terminal, leafy shoots emerging 20–50 cm above the water surface; stems yellowish green (2–5 m long and 5 mm thick), roots forming at the joints.
Leaves: Pale green or bluish green, feather-like, finely divided, elongated or oval with deeply divided margins (30–45 mm long and 15 mm wide), arranged in groups of 4–6 at the tips of the stems.
Flowers: Inconspicuous, solitary in axis of leaves.
Fruits: None
ORIGIN
Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Peru and Paraguay
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Drainage ditches, irrigation channels, dams, ponds, swamps, wetlands, lakes and slow-moving rivers or streams.
IMPACTS
Dense infestations exclude native plants and have multiple negative impacts on water transport, fisheries and recreation, and can increase the abundance of mosquitoes. The high tannin content also means that fish do not eat the plant. In California, control costs of this weed over a two-year period were US$ 215,000 (Anderson, 1993). Additional impacts would be similar to those of water hyacinth.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/
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Mytilopsis sallei
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SYSTEM
Marine
COMMON NAMES
English: false mussel, Caribbean black-striped mussel, Caribbean black-striped false mussel, Santo Domingo false mussel, black striped mussel
DESCRIPTION
Mytilopsis sallei is a small, fingernail sized mussel, growing to an average size of 25mm, although sizes range from lengths of 8-25mm, with a maximum width of 9.68mm and a maximum height of 12.58mm. It has a varied shell colouration, from black through to a light colour, with some small individuals having a light and dark zig-zag pattern. The right valve overlaps the left valve, and is slightly larger. M. sallei settles in clusters, and is rarely seen as a single individual (NIMPIS, 2002).
NATIVE RANGE
World: Atlantic - Western Central, Guatemala, United States, West Indies
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
ASEAN: Singapore
WORLD: Australia, Hongkong, Japan, Fiji, India, Mexico, Taiwan
PATHWAY
Transport – Ship/boat hull fouling
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Hull fouling is often an important factor in incursions, such as the introduction of M. sallei to Darwin Harbour, Australia in the 1990s (Hutchings et al. 2002).Spread via ballast water appears less likely because of the short duration of the larval stage (CSIRO, 2001).
IMPACTS
Mytilopsis sallei is an extremely prolific and fecund species, being ecologically similar to its relation the zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha. It has been responsible for massive fouling on wharves and marinas, seawater systems (pumping stations, vessel ballast and cooling systems) and marine farms. In preferred habitats, it forms dense monospecific groups that exclude most other species, leading to a substantial reduction in biodiversity in infected areas (NIMPIS, 2002; CSIRO, 2001).
Source: Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) 2015. Species profile Mytilopsis sallei. Available from: http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1047 [Accessed 09 September 2019]
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Oncorhynchus mykiss
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Oncorhynchus mykiss. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Oncorhynchus+mykiss on 21 January 2021. |
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Opuntia stricta
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CACTUS FAMILY
Cactaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: Australian pest pear, common pest pear, erect prickly pear, sour prickly pear.
DESCRIPTION
Succulent erect, spreading shrub [0.5–1.3 (–2) m high]; thicketforming; modified stems called cladodes are blue-green, longer than broad (10–20 cm long and 7.5–14 cm wide); 3–5 areoles (raised structures or bumps on the stems of cacti, out of which grow clusters of spines) per diagonal row on each cladode; 1–2 straight and flattened yellow spines (1.5–4 cm long) usually restricted to marginal areoles as opposed to O. stricta (Ahw.) Haw. var. dillenii (Ker Gawl.) Benson where there are 4–7 (–11) banded spines (1.5–4 cm long) on most areoles.
Leaves: Cylindrical, minute and shed early.
Flowers: Yellow and large (5–6 cm long and 5–6 cm wide).
Fruits: Berries (fleshy fruits that don’t open at maturity), green turning red-purple as they mature, egg-shaped (4–6 cm long and 2.5–3 cm wide), outer surface smooth with clusters of glochids (barbed hairs or bristles), narrowed at the base, purple sour pulp, white seeds.
ORIGIN
Ecuador, Mexico, Southern USA, Venezuela, and the Caribbean.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Hedge/barrier and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, wastelands, disturbed areas, rocky outcrops, savannah, grassland and riverbanks in arid to semi-arid regions.
IMPACTS
Can form dense stands, preventing access to homes, water resources and pasture. On Madagascar, O. stricta has invaded land used for crop and pasture production, and has encroached on villages and roads, impeding human mobility (Larsson, 2004). Here, the cactus has had a negative impact on native grasses and herbs, and it is even affecting trees by inhibiting their growth and regeneration (Larsson, 2004). The small spines (known as glochids) on the fruit, when consumed by livestock, lodge in their gums, on their tongues, or in their gastrointestinal tracts, causing bacterial infections, while the hard seeds may cause rumen impaction, which can be fatal, and which often leads to excessive, enforced culling of affected animals (Ueckert et al., 1990). People who consume the fruits develop diarrhoea and may suffer from serious infections caused by the spines (Larsson, 2004). In Kenya, O. stricta infestations have resulted in the abandonment of farmlands.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 23 October 2018
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Oreochromis aureus
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Oreochromis aureus. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Oreochromis+aureus on 27 January 2021. |
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Oreochromis mossambicus
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Oreochromis mossambicus. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Oreochromis+mossambicus on 26 January 2021. |
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Panicum repens
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GRASS FAMILY
Poaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: bullet grass, couch panicum, creeping panic grass, quack grass, torpedograss
Cambodia: smau phluk
Indonesia: rumput lampuyangan
Philippines: luya-luyahan, pagudpel, parayparay
Viet Nam: co gung, co cua gà, co ong
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen grass with culms (flowering stem) (1 m in height) arising from long, creeping rhizomes with sharp-pointed (torpedo-like) tips.
Leaves: Green, linear, flat or folded (7–25 cm long and 2–8 mm wide) with a whitish, waxy covering; leaf sheaths (tubular structure that clasps stem) hairless or hairy, with hairs usually restricted to the upper margins; ligule (thin outgrowth at junction of the leaf and leaf stalk) is membranous with short hairs.
Flowers: Branched, open inflorescences (7–22 cm long) with 1–3 branchlets per node.
ORIGIN
Botswana, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Morocco, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe, and Greece and Italy in Europe.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Forage
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, wasteland, crops, plantations, drainage ditches, irrigation channels, lowlands, floodplains, wetlands, gullies,lake and river edges.
IMPACTS
Displaces native vegetation, particularly in or near shallow waters. It is also a serious weed in a wide range of perennial crops including sugarcane in Taiwan and Hawaii; pineapple in West Africa; tea in India, Indonesia and Sri Lanka; various orchard crops in Thailand; rubber, coconut and oil palm in Malaysia; and rice in Indonesia and Sri Lanka (Holm et al., 1977). In Taiwan, rhizome density can reach 15 tons per hectare, while a density of 5 tons per hectare can result in a 50% reduction in sugarcane yield (Peng and Sze, 1974). P. repens may act as an alternative host to the rice leafhopper (Holm et al., 1977).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 23 October 2018
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Parthenium hysterophorus
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DAISY FAMILY
Asteraceae
COMMON NAMES
English: carrot weed, carrot grass, congress weed, famine weed, ragweed, white top.
DESCRIPTION
Annual erect herb, much branched [0.5–1.5 (–2) m high], forms a basal rosette of leaves when young, green stems are longitudinally grooved or ribbed and covered in short hairs.
Leaves: Pale green, covered with short stiff hairs; rosette and lower stem leaves are deeply divided and large (3–30cm long and 2–12 cm wide); upper stem leaves are shorter and less divided
Flowers: White, in small compact heads (5 mm across), clustered at the tips of branches, each flowerhead has five distinctive petals.
Fruits: Achenes (small, dry, one-seeded fruits that don’t open at maturity), (1.5–2.5 mm long), five in each flowerhead.
ORIGIN
Argentina, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Cuba, Dominica, Grenada, Grenadines, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Paraguay, Puerto Rico, St. Vincent, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, Virgin Islands and Venezuela.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Medicine, ornament and accidentally as a contaminant.
INVADES
Roadsides, railways, wasteland, disturbed land, fallow land, crops, plantations, managed pasture, gardens drainage ditches, forest edges/gaps, woodland edges/gaps, grassland, savannah, riversides, lowlands and gullies.
IMPACTS
Parthenium disrupts grasslands, invades woodlands and generally disturbs native vegetation through aggressive competition (Evans, 1997). Parthenium is allelopathic, reducing crop yields, and displacing palatable species in natural and improved pasture. In India, parthenium infestations have resulted in yield losses of up to 40% in several crops (Khosla and Sobti, 1979). Parthenium is also a secondary host for a range of crop pests. In terms of pasture production, this noxious weed has been found to reduce livestock carrying capacities by as much as 90% (Jayachandra, 1971). It also poses serious health hazards to livestock, and can cause severe allergenic reactions in people who regularly come into contact with the weed.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 23 October 2018
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Passiflora foetida
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PASSION-FLOWER FAMILY
Passifloraceae
COMMON NAMES
English: foetid passion flower, passion flower, stinking passion fruit, wild passionfruit
Cambodia: voer saw maw
Indonesia: buah tikus, ceplukan blunsun, katceprek, katjeprek, lemanas, permot, permot rajutan, rambaton blunsun
Lao PDR: nya ham ho
Malaysia: pokok lang bulu, timun dendang
Myanmar: chin-gya-thee-pin, su-ka
Philippines: belon-belon, kurunggut, lupok-lupok, masaflora, melon meleonan, taungan, pasionariang-mabaho, prutas taungan
Thailand: ka thok rok
Viet Nam: chùm bao, nhãn long
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen, tendril climber; stems sometimes angular (up to 15 m high); tendril at the base of each leaf stalk together with a stipule (threadlike appendage) covered in sticky glands; stems have an unpleasant odour.
Leaves: Glossy dark-green above, simple, deeply three-lobed, but sometimes entire or five-lobed (3–10.5 cm long and 3–10 cm wide), margins with forward-pointing sharp projections or teeth; leaves held alternately on stems and borne on stalks (1–6 cm long).
Flowers: White or purplish (3–5 cm across), borne singly on stalks (2–4.5 cm long) arising from the leaf forks.
Fruits: Berries (fleshy fruits that don’t open at maturity), greenishyellow turning yellow/orange as it matures, round, dry, large (1.5–4 cm long), hairless, partially enclosed by the sticky bracts.
ORIGIN
Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, USA and Venezuela.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Medicine, edible fruit, ground cover and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed areas, crops, plantations, forest edges/gaps, savannah and riparian zones.
IMPACTS
In parts of Malaysia it is a serious weed of maize and rubber. It also impacts negatively on coconut production in the Pacific, on maize, sugarcane and cotton in Thailand, on oil palm in Indonesia, on taro in Samoa, and on various other crops in Sarawak (Holm et al., 1997). It is an alternative host for a number of diseases which affect cultivated passion fruit.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 23 October 2018
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Passiflora suberosa
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PASSION-FLOWER FAMILY
Passifloraceae
COMMON NAMES
English: cork passion flower, small passion fruit, wild passionfruit
Viet Nam: lac tiên ban
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen, slender vine/climber or creeper, stems (up to 6 m in length) producing tendrils in the leaf forks, young stems are round or sometimes angular, becoming corky at the base with age.
Leaves: Dark green, simple (3–11 cm long and 4–12 cm wide), with three-pointed lobes, margins occasionally entire, leaves held alternately on the stems and borne on stalks (0.5–4 cm long).
Flowers: White to pale green, small (15–25 mm wide), on stalks (1.5–2.5 cm long) arising from the leaf forks.
Fruits: Berries (fleshy fruits that don’t open at maturity), green turning bluish-black or purplish-black as it matures, rounded (1–1.5 cm wide), contain numerous wrinkled seeds (3–4 mm long).
ORIGIN
Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, USA and Venezuela.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ground cover and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, wasteland, plantations, forest edges/gaps, woodland edges/gaps, lowlands and riparian vegetation.
IMPACTS
Smothers native vegetation reducing biodiversity. This climber, together with other invasive plant species, threatens Platydesma cornuta Hillebr. var. decurrens B.C. Stone (Rutaceae), a rare shrub endemic on Oahu of which only about 200 individual plants remain (Richardson, 2007). It also invades sugarcane fields and Eucalyptus spp. plantations in Mauritius (Seeruttun et al., 2005). Areas covered with dead and dying native plants become a fire hazard or increase the potential for erosion (Garrison et al., 2002). It is apparently toxic to cattle and ducks (Everist, 1974).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 23 October 2018
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Pheidole megacephala
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Pheidole megacephala. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Pheidole+megacephala on 20 January 2021. |
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Phyllorhiza punctata
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FAMILY
SYSTEM
COMMON NAME
DESCRIPTION
NATIVE RANGE
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
PATHWAY
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
IMPACTS Source: Global Invasive Species Database (2021) Species profile: Phyllorhiza punctata. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Phyllorhiza+punctata on 27 January 2021. |
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Piper aduncum
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PEPPER FAMILY
Piperaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: bamboo piper, false matico, jointwood, piper
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen shrub or small tree (6–8 m tall), with short stilt roots, often in thickets, branches are erect, but with drooping twigs and swollen, purplish nodes, foliage and twigs aromatic. Bark: Yellow-green, finely hairy stems and enlarged, ringed nodes.
Leaves: Green, softly hairy beneath, broadly sword- to oval-shaped (13–25 cm long and 3.5–8 cm wide), tapering into long tips with the base asymmetric, short leaf stalks.
Flowers: Yellowish, tiny, in long curving spikes opposite the leaves.
Fruits: Berries (fleshy fruits that don’t open at maturity), green, small, egg-shaped, compressed into greyish, worm-like spikes.
ORIGIN
Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, and the Caribbean.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Medicine, spice and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, fallow land, plantations, forest edges/gaps, lowlands and riparian zones.
IMPACTS
P. aduncum establishes dense stands which shade out native species and prevent forest regeneration. In field surveys in Papua New Guinea, it was found to be present in all garden plots, 92% of riverine plots, 80% of young secondary and 65% of old secondary forest plots, and 75% of the gaps (Leps et al., 2002). In regenerating areas, P. aduncum sometimes attained a canopy cover of 75% and suppressed the native species which local communities utilized extensively in the past (Leps et al., 2002). In the Pacific, it is accidentally harvested with kava (Piper methysticum G. Forst), an important crop, lowering its quality. It also competes with kava and other crops and may act as a host for kava pests and pathogensm (Plant Protection Service, 2001). It consumes large quantities of water, drying out the soil, and absorbs significant amounts of nutrients to the detriment of crops.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 24 October 2018
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Pistia stratiotes
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ARUM FAMILY
Araceae
COMMON NAMES
English: Nile cabbage, tropical duckweed, water cabbage, water lettuce
Cambodia: chark Thom
Indonesia: apon-apon, apu-apu, kiapu
Malaysia: kiambang
Thailand: chok, jawg
Viet Nam: bèo cái
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen, mat-forming, usually free-floating aquatic plant; consists of a rosette of leaves (30 cm across) with a tuft of long, feathery roots (up to 80 cm long); plants develop runners (up to 60 cm long); resemble floating lettuces.
Leaves: Pale yellow-green or greyish-green, spongy, narrow at the base and rounded at the tips (2.5–15 cm long and 2–8 cm wide), margins with a series of curved projections, leaves ribbed with 6–15 longitudinal veins radiating from the base; soft white velvety hairs are found on the top and bottom of the leaf which repel water.
Flowers: Inconspicuous, pale green or white, arising from leaf forks.
Fruits: Capsules (dry fruits that open at maturity), small, green, eggshaped or oval, (5–10 mm long).
ORIGIN
Brazil
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Irrigation channels, dams, ponds, floodplains, swamps, wetlands, lakes and slow-moving rivers.
IMPACTS
Water lettuce infestations contribute to increased rates of siltation, slowing of water flow rates, degradation of fish nesting sites, increased nutrient loading, thermal stratification, increased alkalinity, and fish and macro-invertebrate mortality (Dray and Center, 2002). Mats of water lettuce block waterways, making navigation difficult. Mats of the weed also hamper fishing activities, interfere with hydroelectricity generation and hinder flood control efforts. They provide habitats for vectors of disease, and can interfere with rice production (Holm et al., 1977; Waterhouse, 1993).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 24 October 2018
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Prosopis juliflora
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PEA FAMILY
Fabaceae; subfamily: Mimosaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: algorroba, ironwood, mesquite
Philippines: aroma
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen shrub or tree with thorns/spines, multi-stemmed but occasionally single stemmed [3–5 (15) m high], twigs distinctively zigzag.
Bark: Thick, rough grey-green, scaly with age and armed with sharp thorns/spines (up to 5 cm long).
Leaves: Dark green, hairless or hairy, twice-divided, 1–3 (–4) pairs of leaf branchlets (3–11 cm long) each with 11–15 pairs of leaflets, narrow, somewhat elongated with parallel sides (6–23 mm long and 1.6–5.5 mm wide), with smooth margins, no terminal leaflet, leaves grow alternately on stem. Flowers: Yellow, small, in cylindrical spikes (5–10 cm long and 1.5 cm side), solitary or in clusters near the leaf axils, fragrant.
Fruits: Pods (several seeded dry fruits that split open at maturity), green turning yellow as they mature, flat, slightly curved (8–29 cm long and 9–17 mm wide), containing 10–20 oval seeds (2–8 mm long).
ORIGIN
Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama and Venezuela.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Fuelwood, timber, fodder, tannin, landscape restoration, windbreaks, shade, hedge/barrier and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, wastelands, fallow land, drainage ditches, woodland edges/gaps, savannah, riparian vegetation, floodplains, gullies and sandy stream beds.
IMPACTS
Displaces native plant species and reduces the abundance and diversity of bird and other animal species. In Ethiopia, P. juliflora has reduced understorey basal cover for perennial grasses and reduced the number of grass species from seven to two (Kebede and Coppock, 2015). By transforming habitats and eliminating pasture species, it threatens the survival of Grévy’s zebra (Equus grevyi) in invaded areas (Kebede and Coppock, 2015). Other negative impacts include encroachment onto paths, villages, homes, water sources, crop- and pasturelands; and injuries inflicted by the thorns (Maundu et al., 2009). Infestations have contributed to the abandonment of agricultural land, homes and small villages. The pollen has been identified as a major allergen (Killian and McMichael, 2004). In semi-arid parts of Africa, P. juliflora has depleted the natural resources on which thousands of people depend, spawning conflict between communities over the diminishing resources.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 24 October 2018
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Pterois volitans
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SYSTEM
Marine
COMMON NAMES
English: scorpion volitans, peacock lionfish, Indo-Pacific red lionfish, lionfish
Indonesia: Lepu-penganten
Malaysia: Depu, Depu-belang zebra, Gedempu, Lepu
Philippines: Tandang, Danuy ranuy, Ranuy ranuy
Viet Nam: Cá Mao Tiên
DESCRIPTION
Pterois volitans has elongated venomous dorsal fin spines and anal fin spines. It has 13 dorsal spines, 10 to 11 dorsal soft rays, 3 anal spines, 6 to 7 anal soft rays. Coastal populations are generally darker, sometimes almost black in estuaries (FishBase 2006). The membranes of fins are often spotted. The body is white or cream coloured with red to reddish-brown vertical stripes. The vertical stripes alternate from wide to very thin and sometimes merge along the flank to form a V (Schofield and Fuller 2006). The maximum length of an adult is 38cm (FishBase 2006) and the maximum body weight is 1.1kg to 1.2kg (Fishelson 1997). Reports of a 43cm individual have been obtained in its introduced range.
NATIVE RANGE
ASEAN: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Viet Nam
World: Australia, China, Christmas Island, Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hong Kong, India
KNOWN INTRODUCED RANGE
WORLD: Atlantic - Western Central, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Cayman Islands, Coasts Of The Caribbean, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Greater Antilles, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Lesser Antilles, Mexico, Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico, Turks And Caicos Islands, United States, Venezuela, Virgin Islands, U.S., West Indies
PATHWAY
Transport – Ship/boat ballast water
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Eggs and larvae of the red lionfish may be transported via ballast water (Whitfield 2002).
IMPACTS
Ecosystem change: While few ecological studies have been conducted (but see Albins & Hixon 2008) it is clear that the lionfish’s presence in the Caribbean is a worrying one. Lionfish are highly piscivorous and reduce the recruitment of juvenile fishes, which in turn disrupts marine ecosystem processes and reduces reef biodiversity (Albins and Hixon 2008; Morris et al. 2008).
Reduction in native biodiversity: If their populations are allowed to continue growing unchecked, lionfish have the potential to severely reduce reef biodiversity, with the possible extinction of several species; although it is still too early to be definitive, anecdotal evidence from the Bahamas corroborates this premise (Dell 2009).
Predation: Albins and Hixon (2008) showed that lionfish can drastically reduce recruitment of native fishes on small patch reefs in the Bahamas. They are potentially capable of decimating indigenous reef fish populations in the Caribbean due to their lack of natural predators and voracious appetite (Valdez Mascari & Aguiar 2009).
Competition: Not only do lionfish consume large quantities of juvenile fish (such as grouper and yellow-tail snapper) but they also out-compete native species (such as scamp, gag, and yellowmouth grouper) for food (Morris et al. 2008; Dell 2009). Economic/Livelihoods: In addition, by reducing populations of commercially important species such as grouper (Albins and Hixon 2008) they may as a consequence damage the economy of island communities which are dependent on such fishing industries.
Human health: Lionfish are venomous with their spines containing apocrine-type venom glands (Morris et al. 2008). Lionfish venom has been found to cause cardiovascular, neuromuscular, and cytolytic effects ranging from mild reactions such as swelling to extreme pain and paralysis in upper and lower extremities (Kizer et al. 1985, in Morris et al. 2008). The toxin in lionfish venom contains acetylcholine and a neurotoxin that affects neuromuscular transmission (Cohen and Olek 1989, in Morris et al. 2008). Lionfish spines can prove dangerous to divers, snorkelers and aquarium enthusiasts (Morris et al. 2008; Schofield 2009). Stings are not fatal, but intensely painful and often requiring hospitalisation (Morris et al. 2008). Lionfish stings can be treated by heating the afflicted part in hot water (to 45° C) for 30 to 90 minutes and applying corticoids to the area (FishBase 2006); medical attention should be sought immediately (Cayman Islands Government Undated).
Source: Source: Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) 2015. Species profile Pterois volitans. Available from: http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1050 [Accessed 09 September 2019]
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Ruellia tuberosa
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ACANTHUS FAMILY
Acanthaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: bluebell, iron root, large bell-flower, minnieroot, popping pod, ruellia, sheep potato, spearpod
Cambodia: phka arch kok, phka smau, smau leach phtoush
Indonesia: pletekan
Viet Nam: cây Qua no
DESCRIPTION
Biennial (lives for 1–2 years) herb, creeping or upright [60 (–70) cm tall], stems four-sided and hairy, swollen and purplish at the nodes with thick, elongated spindle-shaped tuberous roots. Leaves: Green, glossy, almost hairless, simple, oval to eggshaped [5–9 (–18) cm long and 2–4 (–9) cm wide], margins entire, leaf stalk is 5–7 mm long.
Flowers: Mauve to blue-violet, solitary, tubular (5–5.5 cm long and 3.5 cm across), showy.
Fruits: Capsule, hairless, elongated with almost parallel sides (2.2–3 cm long), containing 24–28 seeds.
ORIGIN
Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela and the Caribbean.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Medicine and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, railway lines, disturbed land, drainage ditches and lowlands.
IMPACTS
Forms dense stands displacing native plants and the organisms associated with them.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 24 October 2018
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Salvinia molesta
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WATERMOSS FAMILY
Salviniaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: aquarium water-moss, Australian azolla, butterfly fern, giant salvinia, kariba-weed, salvinia, velvet weed
Cambodia: chark toch
Indonesia: kiambang
Thailand: chawk hunu
Viet Nam: bèo ong lon
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen, mat-forming, free-floating fern, branching horizontal stems (up to 6–25 cm long and 1.2 cm thick), submerged feathery roots.
‘Leaves’: Green or yellowish-green fronds, in pairs, oval (2–6 cm long and 10–15 mm wide); almost impossible to wet due to a covering of fine egg-beater-shaped hairs (1–3 mm long) on upper surface; undersides covered in matted brown hairs.
Flowers: None
Fruits: None, reproduces from detached fragments.
ORIGIN
Brazil
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Drainage ditches, irrigation channels, dams, ponds, swamps, wetlands, lakes and slow-moving rivers.
IMPACTS
Thick mats reduce light penetration into water bodies, impacting negatively on submerged aquatic plants. Infestations also often out-compete rooted and submerged native plants and in so doing, reduce plant diversity (Sculthorpe, 1985). Benthic fauna is usually also reduced (Coates, 1982), while fish can also be impacted by changes in oxygen concentrations as S. molesta plants die and rot within water bodies (Sculthorpe, 1985). It is also a pest of rice paddies in India, where it competes for water, nutrients and space, resulting in poor crop production (Anonymous, 1987). Dense mats also provide habitats for many human disease vectors such as Mansonia spp. mosquitoes, which have been identified as vectors of West Nile virus, St. Louis encephalitis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis and rural elephantiasis (Pancho and Soerjani, 1978; Chow et al., 1955; Ramachandran, 1960; Lounibos et al., 1990). Mats also harbour snails that transmit schistosomiasis (Holm et al., 1977). Infestations also impact negatively on water transport and fishing. For example, entire villages, dependent on water transport were abandoned along the Sepik River in Papua New Guinea when infestations of S. molesta limited access to healthcare, education and food (Gewertz, 1983).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 24 October 2018
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Senna occidentalis
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PEA FAMILY
Fabaceae; subfamily: Caesalpiniaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: ant bush, arsenic bush, coffee senna, sicklepod, stinkweed.
DESCRIPTION
Annual or lives for more than one year but less that two, erect herb or shrub (0.5–2.5 m tall); stems reddish-purple, smooth, hairless or sparsely hairy, four-angled or grooved when young becoming greenish-brown and rounded.
Leaves: Green, once-divided (15–20 cm long), with 3–5 pairs of oppositely held egg-shaped or oval leaflets (3–10 cm long and 2–3 cm wide) with broad and rounded bases, tapering towards the end with pointed tips; conspicuous gland at the base of each leaf stalk; alternately held on stems on reddish stalks (3–5 cm long).
Flowers: Bright yellow (20–30 mm across) in small clusters of 2–6 flowers in forks of uppermost leaves.
Fruits: Pods (several-seeded dry fruits that split open at maturity), green turning brown as they mature, flattened, slightly curled (75–130 mm long and 8–10 mm wide), held upright.
ORIGIN
Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Cayman Islands, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Coffee substitute, medicine and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, wasteland, disturbed land, fallow land, managed pastures, drainage ditches, woodland edges/gaps, savannah, riparian vegetation and gullies.
IMPACTS
Dense stands can displace native plant species, and reduce livestock carrying capacities in managed and natural pastures. Being allelopathic, it inhibits the germination and growth of other plants. Studies have shown that it has a negative impact on maize (Arora, 2013) and cotton yields (Higgins et al., 1986), and is an alternative host for crop diseases (Suteri et al., 1979). The seeds of S. occidentalis are highly toxic, containing compounds that damage the liver, the vascular system and the heart and lungs of domestic livestock, often leading to death in cattle (Barros et al., 1999), horses (Riet-Correa et al., 1998), goats (Suliman et al., 1982; Suliman and Shommein, 1986), pigs (Martins et al., 1986), poultry (Haraguchi et al., 1998), and rabbits (O’Hara and Pierce, 1974). Consumption of the seeds in western Uttar Pradesh, in India, resulted in the deaths of nine children within five days (Vashishtha et al., 2007).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 24 October 2018
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Solanum viarum
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TOMATO FAMILY
Solanaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: tropical soda apple
Viet Nam: cà trái vàng
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen, erect herb [50–150 (–200) cm tall], with densely hairy stems and branches with recurved (2–5 mm long) and straight spines (up to 20 mm long) on the leaf stalks and the leaf veins.
Leaves: Dark green, glossy above, duller below, hairy, simple, broadly egg-shaped [6–20 cm long and 6–15 cm wide], bluntly lobed, with spines on the veins and hairs on both sides, leaf stalks are 3–7 cm long with prickles. Flowers: White (1.5 cm across), in clusters of 1–5.
Fruits: Berries (fleshy fruits that don’t open at maturity), mottled light and dark green becoming pale yellow as they mature, smooth (2–3 cm across), containing 400 brown seeds (2–3 mm in diameter).
ORIGIN
Argentina, southern Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Medicine and accidentally as a contaminant.
INVADES
Grassland, forest edges/gaps and riparian vegetation.
IMPACTS
Dense stands displace other plant species by crowding or shading them out. The prickles on the plants reduce wildlife forage and prevent movement of animals through invaded areas (USDA-FS, 2005). The foliage and stems are unpalatable to cattle, considerably reducing livestock-carrying capacities (Medal et al., 2012). Control costs of S. viarum to ranchers in Florida were estimated at US$ 6.5–16 million per year (Thomas, 2007). It has also caused poisoning of goats in Florida (Porter et al., 2003). It is an alternative host for many plant diseases including the cucumber mosaic virus, gemini virus, potato leafroll virus, potato virus Y, tobacco etch virus, tomato mosaic virus, tomato mottle virus and the fungal pathogen, Alternaria solani (Cooke, 1997). It is also a host for a number of insect pests (Sudbrink et al., 2000; Medal et al., 2012).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 24 October 2018
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Spathodea campanulata
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JACARANDA FAMILY
Bignoniaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: fireball, flame tree, fountain tree, Nandi flame, Nile flame, tulip tree
Cambodia: angkie dei chmool
Indonesia: pohon hujan
Viet Nam: cây hoa tuylip châu phi
DESCRIPTION
Large, upright tree [10–15 (–35) m tall] with trunk up to 170 cm in diameter with a dense wide crown; younger branches are almost hairless or have a sparse covering of short hairs, older branches thick with small white-coloured corky spots; shoots, buds and branchlets covered in yellow-brown hairs, slightly buttressed; sheds leaves at the end of the growing season.
Bark: Pale, grey-brown, smooth, rough with age.
Leaves: Green, yellow-brown soft hairs on underside, large, oncedivided (50 cm long) with (7–) 11–15 (–17) broadly oval or eggshaped leaflets with base rounded and gradually tapering towards the end (15 cm long and 7.5 cm wide), margins entire, 2–3 glands at base of each leaflet, leaves oppositely arranged on stalks that are up to 6 cm long.
Flowers: Orange, showy, tulip-shaped, in dense clusters (8–10 cm long) on long stalks (10 cm long) at the end of branches, individual flower stalks short and covered in brownish hairs; there is a yellow-flowering variety.
Fruits: Pod-like (several-seeded dry fruit that splits open at maturity), green changing to brown as they mature, elongated (17–30 cm long and 3.5–5 cm wide).
ORIGIN
Angola, Benin, Burundi, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo,Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Gabon, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sierra Leone and Togo.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Fuelwood, carving, medicine, bee forage, erosion control, mulch, windbreak, shade and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, forest edges/gaps and riparian areas.
IMPACTS
Native plants are displaced by the shading effect of the large leaves, resulting in reduced biodiversity under tree canopies (Weber, 2003). In surveys in Fiji, respondents claimed that the African tulip tree competes with crops, reduces the amount of land available for grazing livestock and leads to the loss of more desirable trees that are used for medicinal purposes and/or firewood (Brown and Daigneault, 2014). It is a weed of coffee plantations in Cuba, reducing yields (Herrera-Isla et al., 2002).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 24 October 2018
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Sphagneticola trilobata
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DAISY FAMILY
Asteraceae
COMMON NAMES
English: creeping oxeye, creeping daisy, creeping wedelia, Singapore daisy
Indonesia: seruni, widelia, wedelia
Malaysia: panchut-panchut
Philippines: imelda
Viet Nam: son cúc ba thùy
DESCRIPTION
Creeping, mat-forming evergreen herb with scrambling or climbing habit [15–30 (–70) cm tall]; stems green or reddish (up to 2 m long), slightly hairy, rounded, rooting at the joints.
Leaves: Dark green, glossy, almost hairless, simple, fleshy (40–180 mm long and 15–80 mm wide), three-lobed, margins toothed, held in opposite pairs on stem, stalkless or on short stalks.
Flowers: Bright yellow to orange, daisy-like (20–35 mm across), borne singly on upright stalks (3–15 cm long).
Fruits: Achene (small, dry, one-seeded fruit that does not open at maturity), brown, elongate (4–5 mm long).
ORIGIN
Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela and the Caribbean.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Medicine, erosion control and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed areas, wasteland, drainage ditches, forest edges/gaps, woodland edges/gaps and lowlands.
IMPACTS
Forms a dense ground cover to the detriment of other plant species. It is also allelopathic enhancing its competitiveness (Zhang et al., 2004). Even low infestation levels have a negative impact on plant diversity. In a study on Hainan Island, China, S. trilobata already starts decreasing plant community diversity at 10% cover (Qi et al., 2014). In south-east Viti Levu and Taveuni Island, Fiji, it has invaded taro [Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott; Araceae] fields (Macanawai, 2013).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 24 October 2018
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Stachytarpheta jamaicensis
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VERBENA FAMILY
Verbenaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: blue porter weed, blue snake weed, Brazilian tea, Jamaica snakeweed, porterweed, snake weed
Indonesia: gewongan, jarong
Malaysia: ramput tahi babi, selaseh dandi
Philippines: albaka, bilu-bilu, bolomaros, kandi-kandilaan, limbagat, sentemiento, verbena de las antilles
Viet Nam: cây duôi chuot, hai tiên
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen shrubby herb (60–120 cm high), young stems green or purplish, mostly hairless and square in cross-section becoming rounded, light brown and woody as they mature; woody rootstock.
Leaves: Green with a bluish or greyish tinge, leathery, hairless or with a few hairs on veins on undersides, simple, leaves eggshaped, oval or somewhat elongated with almost parallel sides (2–12 cm long and 1–5 cm wide) with rounded tips, margins sharp but finely toothed; leaves held opposite each other on stems on stalks 5–35 mm long.
Flowers: Light blue, blue or mauve, tubular (7–11 mm long and 8 mm across) on long, curved and thick spikes (15–50 cm long and 3–7 mm thick) at the end of branches.
Fruits: Capsules (dry fruits that open at maturity), green turning dark brown, dark purple or black as they mature, small, somewhat elongated with almost parallel sides (3–7 mm longand 1.5–2 mm across).
ORIGIN
Belize, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Suriname, south-eastern USA, Venezuela, and the Caribbean.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Medicine and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed sites, wastelands, fallow land, plantations, managed pasture, gardens, drainage ditches, savannah, forest edges/gaps, woodland edges/gaps, lowlands, floodplains and coastal environs.
IMPACTS
Forms dense stands outcompeting native plants for water and nutrients. Probable host of cucumber mosaic cucumovirus in India (Mathew and Balakrishnan, 1991).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 24 October 2018
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Swietenia macrophylla
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MAHOGANY FAMILY
Meliaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: big-leaved mahogany, broad-leaved mahogany, Honduras mahogany
Cambodia: kroab baek
Indonesia: mahoni
Malaysia: cheria mahogany
Thailand: mahokkani-bailek
Viet Nam: cây nhac ngua
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen tropical tree species (up to 40–60 m high), trunk is straight, cylindrical, 3–4 m in circumference, buttresses up to 5 m high, crown of young trees is narrow, but old trees have a broad, dense and highly branched crown.
Bark: Brownish-grey to reddish-brown, deeply furrowed, scaly, inner bark red-brown or pinkish red, flaking off in small patches.
Leaves: Green, once-divided [12–45 (–60) cm long], 3–6 pairs of sword- or egg-shaped leaflets (5–12 cm long and 2–5 cm wide), margins entire gradually tapering to a sharp point.
Flowers: Small (0.5–1 cm long and 8 mm across), in clusters (10–20 cm long).
Fruits: Capsule (a dry fruit that opens at maturity), light grey to brown, egg-shaped (12–39 cm long and 7–12 cm wide) containing 20–70 winged seeds (7–12 cm long and 2–2.5 cm wide).
ORIGIN
Belize, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru and Venezuela.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Fuelwood, building materials, timber, shade and ornament.
INVADES
Disturbed land, forest edges/gaps and riparian vegetation.
IMPACTS
Mahogany readily invades secondary forests and forest edges and gaps preventing native species regeneration. In the lowlands of Mount Makiling, Philippines, mahogany had penetrated 250 m into secondary forests in 70 years (Baguinon, 2011). Dominance is facilitated by the fact that mahogany may also be allelopathic (Thinley, 2002). Extracts from the leaves of mahogany were shown to retard the growth of narra (Pterocarpus indicus Willd.) seedlings in the Philippines (Baguinon et al., 2003). Diversity of native plants in general was also considerably reduced under or near S. macrophylla stands. Invasive mahogany species together with other introduced plants are preventing the regeneration of dipterocarp and nondipterocarp forests in parts of Asia.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 24 October 2018
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Syngonium podophyllum
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ARUM FAMILY
Araceae
COMMON NAMES
English: arrowhead vine, African evergreen, goosefoot plant, American evergreen
Indonesia: Keladi-keladian
Philippines: kamay-Kastila
Viet Nam: Tróc bac, trau bà trang
DESCRIPTION
Rampant evergreen climber or creeping plant reaching 5-10 m when climbing over trees; young stems bluish-green, hairless, smooth, fleshy, contain milky sap, roots develop at stem joints; older stems pale brown, woody (1.5-2.5 cm thick) with aerial roots.
Leaves: Vary in colour with lower leaves dark green or with silverywhite veins and upper leaves light or dark green with no markings, all hairless with margins entire, paler undersides and on stalks (15-60 cm long) which are partly grooved; lower leaves are heart-shaped or shaped like an arrow-head (7-14 cm long) with pointed tips; intermediate leaves larger with spreading lobes; upper leaves (12-38 cm long and 16-17 cm wide) divided into three segments or leaflets.
Flowers: Whitish spikes (4-11) (5-9 cm long and 7-15 mm wide) partially enclosed in a white to greenish modified leaf (9-11 cm long), held in upper leaf forks on stalks (up to 13 cm long).
Fruits: Red to reddish-orange merging into one larger fruit, turning brown as they mature, egg-shaped (3.5-7 cm long and 1.5-3.5 cm wide), usually hidden.
ORIGIN
Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago and Venezuela.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Roadsides, wasteland, disturbed land, plantations, forests, forest edges/gaps, woodlands, woodland edges/gaps, riparian zones and wetlands.
IMPACTS
Climbs up into shrubs and tree shading out native vegetation and in so doing reducing native plant diversity and abundance. It has the ability to invade intact forests covering the forest floor and climbing into large and well established native trees, often causing canopy collapse due to the weight of the large stems (Space and Flynn, 2000; (Morgan et al., 2004). In Florida it is displacing a host of native plants including rare ferns (Possley, 2004). In Belize, it has invaded citrus orchards competing with trees for water and nutrients (Tzul, undated). The thick mats also harbour snakes endangering labourers working in orchards (Tzul, undated). S. podophyllum may also cause mild to severe poisoning if ingested (Morgan et al., 2004).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 24 October 2018
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Thunbergia grandiflora
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ACANTHUS FAMILY
Acanthaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: Bengal trumpet vine, blue thunbergia, blue trumpet vine, Indian sky flower
Cambodia: voer thnort
Indonesia: keladi-keladian
Philippines: ag-agob, hagonoy, suga-suga, padawel, saromayag, kama-elaw
Viet Nam: dây bông xanh, bông báo
DESCRIPTION
A vigorous evergreen climber with rope-like stems (up to 15 m in height) with tuberous roots; young stems are green, hairy, square in cross-section, becoming brown and more rounded with age.
Leaves: Dark green, somewhat hairy, simple, variable in shape from triangular with broad heart-shaped bases to egg-shaped with broad end at base (8–22 cm long and 3–15 cm wide), margins entire to irregularly toothed or with irregular pointed lobes, held opposite each other on stems.
Flowers: Pale-blue, violet or mauve with pale yellow or whitish throat, trumpet-shaped (3–8 cm long and 6–8 cm across), on elongated clusters; each flower on a stalk (4.5 cm long).
Fruits: Capsule (dry fruit that opens at maturity) with a rounded base (18 mm long and 13 mm wide) and a long tapered beak (2–5 cm long and about 7 mm wide).
ORIGIN
Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar and Nepal.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Ornament
INVADES
Plantations, forest, forest edges/gaps, woodlands, woodland edges/ gaps and riparian vegetation.
IMPACTS
This climber completely smothers other established plant species and prevents the regeneration of native species in invaded areas (Starr et al., 2003b). T. grandiflora has a heavy and extensive tuberous root system which can lead to riverbank destabilization and damage fences and building foundations (Motooka et al., 2003). In Queensland, Australia, it is having a negative impact on threatened lowland tropical rainforest that have been fragmented by agricultural and urban development (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2007). It also climbs on to power lines causing power outages.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ |
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Tithonia diversifolia
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DAISY FAMILY
Asteraceae
COMMON NAMES
English: Mexican sunflower, shrub sunflower, tree marigold
Cambodia: chhouk roth japon
Indonesia: keladi-keladian
Viet Nam: dã quy
DESCRIPTION
Annual or evergreen herbaceous shrub, woody at the base [2–3 (–5) m high]; stems slightly ridged and hairy when young.
Leaves: Greyish-green, finely hairy on underside giving a grey appearance, simple (6–33 cm long and 5–22 cm wide) with 3–5 (–7) pointed lobes, margins with a series of curved projections or teeth; held opposite or alternately on stem.
Flowers: Bright yellow, daisy or sunflower-like (up to 10 cm across), held on long and swollen stalks (7–30 cm long) which are velvety below the flowerhead.
Fruits: Achenes (small, dry, one-seeded fruits that don’t open at maturity), brown (4–8 mm long), in a spiky mass.
ORIGIN
Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua and Panama.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Fodder, medicine, mulch, soil improvement, hedge/barrier and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed sites, wastelands, urban open space, fallow land, savannah, lowlands and riparian vegetation.
IMPACTS
Forms dense stands displacing native plant species and the animals associated with them. T. diversifolia is displacing native species in the wetlands of the Apete River, Eleyele Lake and Oba Dam in Ibadan, Nigeria, including the invasive and aggressive shrub Chromolaena odorata (Oluode et al., 2011), and is now considered to be one of the most invasive species in Nigeria (Borokini, 2011). Mexican sunflower has the ability to compete with agricultural crops (Ilori et al., 2007) and is contributing to the extinction of local species, including important medicinal plants (Oludare and Muoghalu, 2014). According to reports, it is leading to the abandonment of farms in the Copperbelt region of Zambia.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 24 October 2018
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Vachellia nilotica
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PEA FAMILY
Fabaceae; Subfamily Mimosaceae
COMMON NAMES
English: gum arabic, Nile thorn, prickly acacia, scented thorn
Indonesia: akasia
Viet Nam: keo a rap
DESCRIPTION
Evergreen thorny tree or shrub [4–6 (–25) m]; usually singlestemmed, crown scattered when young, later umbrella-shaped; thorns greyish (up to 10 cm long); deep and well-developed root system.
Bark: In young trees tinge of orange and/or green; in older trees brown-black, rough and deeply grooved.
Leaves: Dark green, hairless, twice-divided with 3–10 pairs of leaf branchlets (4 cm long), each with 10–25 pairs of leaflets, which are narrow and somewhat elongated with almost parallel sides (2–6 mm long and 0.5– .5 mm wide); pair of spines (1–5 cm long) at base of each group of leaves in young stems.
Flowers: Pale to golden yellow globular flowerheads (1–1.5 cm across) on 2 cm long stalks, fragrant.
Fruits: Pods (several-seeded dry fruits that split open at maturity), green turning black as they mature, straight or slightly curved (10–20 cm long and 5–17 mm wide), constrictions between each seed in the pod resemble a string of pearls.
ORIGIN
India, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan and Yemen.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Fuelwood, building materials, timber, tools, medicine, chicorysubstitute in coffee, fodder, nitrogen fixation, soil conservation, windbreak, firebreak, shade and ornament.
INVADES
Roadsides, disturbed land, urban open space, drainage ditches, irrigation channels, woodland edges/gaps, savannah and natural pasture.
IMPACTS
In Queensland, Australia, tree cover of just 25–30% has reduced the amount of pasture by 50% (Carter, 1994). Dense thickets also make it difficult to herd livestock, and animals have reduced access to water. In Indonesia, A. nilotica in Baluran National Park has reduced the amount of grazing available for herbivores, threatening the continued existence of the endangered banteng (Bos javanicus d’Alton; Bovidae). Infestations also contribute to increase soil erosion. Because the tree fixes nitrogen it also impacts on soil nutrient cycling.
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 24 October 2018
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Xanthium strumarium
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DAISY FAMILY
Asteraceae
COMMON NAMES
English: large cocklebur, noogoora bur, sheep bur
Cambodia: kropeatt chrouk
Malaysia: buah anjang
Thailand: kachab
Viet Nam: cây ké dau ngua
DESCRIPTION
Annual, much-branched herb with erect stems (20–150 cm high) without spines; stems stout, green, brownish or reddish-brown, roughly hairy.
Leaves: Green, paler below, hairy on both surfaces, broadly eggshaped to triangular (2–8 cm long), margins irregularly toothed or lobed, on long leaf stalks (2–8 cm), held alternately on stems.
Flowers: Green, inconspicuous, in the leaf axils.
Fruits: Burrs, green turning yellowish then brown as they mature (1.5–2.5 cm long), covered with hooked spines (up to 20 mm long) and two terminal beaks.
ORIGIN
Uncertain, but probably Central and South America.
REASON FOR INTRODUCTION
Bee forage and accidentally as a contaminant.
INVADES
Roadsides, wasteland, disturbed land, fallow land, crops, plantations, drainage ditches, savannah, water courses, lowlands, floodplains and sandy and dry riverbeds.
IMPACTS
Rapidly forms large stands, displacing other plant species. X.strumarium is a major weed of row crops such as soya beans, cotton, maize and groundnuts in many parts of the world, including North America, southern Europe, the Middle East, South Africa, India and Japan (Webster and Coble, 1997). It also has a damaging impact on rice production in South-east Asia (Waterhouse, 1993). In the USA, high-density cocklebur infestations have resulted in soya bean yield losses of as much as 80% (Stoller et al., 1987; Rushing and Oliver, 1998). Infestations can also decrease soya bean seed quality and harvesting efficiency (Ellis et al., 998). Even low-density cocklebur infestations in cotton fields in the USA have contributed to seed yield losses of 60–90 kg per hectare, or approximately 5% (Snipes et al.,1982). Cocklebur has also caused yield losses in groundnuts of 31–39% and 88% at low and high densities, respectively, in the southern USA (Royal et al., 1997). X. strumarium burs lodge in animal hair and in sheep’s wool, reducing the quality and increasing treatment costs (Wapshere, 1974; Hocking and Liddle, 1986). The plants are toxic to livestock and can lead to death if eaten (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1983). Cocklebur is also an alternative host for a number of crop pests (Hocking and Liddle, 1986).
Source:
Witt, Arne. 2017. Guide to the Naturalized and Invasive Plants of Southeast Asia. CAB International. Retrieved from http://www.cabi.org/cabebooks/ebook/20173158961 on 24 October 2018
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